Textbook of Biochemistry with Clinical Correlations
Námskeið LÆK314G Lífefna- og sameindalíffræði A - Höfundur: Thomas M Devlin
5.790 kr.
Námskeið
- LÆK314G Lífefna- og sameindalíffræði A
Lýsing:
This book presents a clear and precise discussion of the biochemistry of eukaryotic cells, particularly those of mammalian tissues, relates biochemical events at a cellular level to the subsequent physiological processes in the whole animal, and cites examples of abnormal biochemical processes in human disease. The organization and content are tied together to provide students with the complete picture of biochemistry and how it relates to human diseases.
Annað
- Höfundur: Thomas M Devlin
- Útgáfa:7
- Útgáfudagur: 012010
- Blaðsíður: 1240
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- Format:Page Fidelity
- ISBN 13: 9780470281734
- ISBN 10: 0470281731
Efnisyfirlit
- Copyright
- Contents in Brief
- Contents
- Clinical Correlations
- Preface
- Contributors
- Acknowledgments
- Part I: Structure of Macromolecules
- Eukaryotic Cell Structure
- Key Concepts
- CELLS ARE THE BASIS OF LIVING ORGANISMS
- Classification of Living Cells
- THE ENVIRONMENT OF CELLS: WATER AND SOLUTES
- Hydrogen Bonds Form between Water Molecules
- Water Has Unique Solvent Properties
- Electrolytes: Dissociation of Molecules in Water
- Water Is a Weak Electrolyte
- pH, WEAK ACIDS, AND THEIR CONJUGATE BASES
- Henderson–Hasselbalch Equation Defines the Relationship between pH and Concentrations of Conjugate
- Buffering Is Important to Control pH
- EUKARYOTES: MAMMALIAN CELLS AND TISSUES
- Mammalian Cells
- Chemical Composition of Mammalian Cells
- FUNCTIONS OF SUBCELLULAR ORGANELLES AND MEMBRANE SYSTEMS IN EUKARYOTE CELLS
- Plasma Membrane Is Limiting Boundary of a Cell
- Nucleus Is Site of DNA and RNA Synthesis
- Endoplasmic Reticulum Has a Role in Protein Synthesis and Many Synthetic Pathways
- Golgi Apparatus Is Involved in Secretion of Proteins
- Mitochondria Supply Most of the Cellular Need for ATP
- Lysosomes Are Required for Intracellular Digestion
- Peroxisomes Have an Important Role in Lipid Metabolism
- Cytoskeleton Organizes the Intracellular Contents
- Cytosol Contains Soluble Cellular Components
- INTEGRATION AND CONTROL OF CELLULAR FUNCTIONS
- DNA and RNA: Composition and Structure
- Key Concepts
- NUCLEIC ACIDS AND BIOLOGICAL INFORMATION
- Central Dogma of Molecular Biology
- DNA Can Transform Cells
- Information Capacity of DNA Is Enormous
- STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF NUCLEIC ACIDS: NUCLEOBASES, NUCLEOSIDES, AND NUCLEOTIDES
- Physical Properties of Nucleosides and Nucleotides
- Structural Properties of Nucleosides and Nucleotides
- STRUCTURE OF DNA
- Polynucleotide Structure and Properties
- Double-Helical DNA
- Noncanonical DNA Structures
- HIGHER-ORDER STRUCTURE OF DNA
- Genomic DNA May Be Linear or Circular
- DNA Is Superhelical
- Topoisomerases
- Packaging of Prokaryotic DNA
- Organization of Eukaryotic Chromatin
- SEQUENCE AND FUNCTION OF DNA
- Restriction Endonucleases and Palindromes
- Most Prokaryotic DNA Codes for Specific Proteins
- Only a Small Percentage of Eukaryotic DNA Consists of Functional Genes
- Repeated Sequences
- STRUCTURE OF RNA
- RNA Is a Polymer of Ribonucleoside 5’-Monophosphates
- Secondary Structure of RNA Involves Intramolecular Base-Pairing
- RNA Molecules Have Tertiary Structures
- TYPES OF RNA
- Transfer RNA Has Two Roles: Activating Amino Acids and Recognizing Codons in mRNA
- Ribosomal RNA Is Part of the Protein Synthesis Apparatus
- Messenger RNAs Carry the Information for the Primary Structure of Proteins
- Mitochondria Contain Unique RNA Species
- RNA in Ribonucleoprotein Particles
- Catalytic RNA: Ribozymes
- RNAs Can Bind Other Molecules
- RNAs Control Translation
- Eukaryotic Cell Structure
- Proteins I: Composition and Structure
- Key Concepts
- FUNCTIONAL ROLES OF PROTEINS IN HUMANS
- AMINO ACID COMPOSITION OF PROTEINS
- Common Amino Acids
- Amino Acids Are Joined into Peptides and Proteins
- CHARGE AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF AMINO ACIDS AND PROTEINS
- Ionizable Groups of Amino Acids and Proteins Are Critical for Biological Function
- General Relationship between Charge Properties of Amino Acids and Proteins, and pH
- Amino Acids and Proteins Can Be Separated on the Basis of their Differences in pI
- Amino Acid Side Chains Have Polar and Apolar Properties
- Amino Acids Undergo a Variety of Chemical Reactions
- PRIMARY STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS
- HIGHER LEVELS OF PROTEIN ORGANIZATION
- Secondary Structure
- Tertiary Structure
- Quaternary Structure
- Unstructured Proteins
- Protein Complexes, Networks, and Interactomes
- Bioinformatics Relates Structure and Function of Protein Gene Products
- Homologous Fold Structures Are Often Formed from Nonhomologous Amino Acid Sequences
- NONGLOBULAR STRUCTURED PROTEINS
- Collagen
- Elastin Is a Fibrous Protein with Allysine-Generated Cross-Links
- Keratin and Tropomyosin
- Plasma Lipoproteins Are Complexes of Lipids with Proteins
- Glycoproteins Contain Covalently Bound Carbohydrate
- FOLDING OF PROTEINS FROM RANDOMIZED TO UNIQUE STRUCTURES: PROTEIN STABILITY
- The Protein Folding Problem
- Chaperone Proteins Assist the Protein Folding Process
- Noncovalent Forces Lead to Protein Folding and Contribute to a Protein’s Stability
- Denaturation Leads to Loss of Native Structure
- DYNAMIC ASPECTS OF PROTEIN STRUCTURE
- CHARACTERIZATION, PURIFICATION, AND DETERMINATION OF PROTEIN STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION
- Separation of Proteins on Basis of Charge
- Separation of Proteins Based on Molecular Mass or Size
- Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis in the Presence of a Detergent
- HPLC Techniques Separate Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins
- Affinity Chromatography
- General Approach to Protein Purification
- Proteomic Techniques Determine All the Proteins Expressed in a Cell or Tissue in a Single Assay
- Determination of Amino Acid Composition of a Protein
- X-Ray Diffraction Techniques Are Used to Determine the Three-Dimensional Structure of Proteins
- Spectroscopic Methods for Evaluating Protein Structure and Function
- Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
- DNA Replication, Recombination, and Repair
- Key Concepts
- COMMON FEATURES OF REPLICATION, RECOMBINATION, AND REPAIR
- DNA REPLICATION: FUNDAMENTAL MECHANICS
- The Basics
- Chemistry of Chain Elongation
- DNA Polymerases
- Separating Parental Strands: The Replication Fork
- Solving the Polarity Problem: Semi-discontinuous DNA Synthesis
- Replication Fork Movement
- Choreography in Three Dimensions: The Replisome
- Termination of Replication in Circular Genomes
- Termination of Replication in Linear Genomes: Telomeres
- Epigenetics
- DNA REPLICATION: ENZYMES AND REGULATION
- Prokaryotic Enzymes of Replication
- Eukaryotic Enzymes of Replication
- Cell Cycle
- Replication of RNA Genomes
- RECOMBINATION
- Homologous Recombination
- Key Proteins of Recombination in E. Coli
- Nonhomologous Recombination
- Pseudogenes
- DNA DAMAGE AND MUTATIONS
- Mutations
- DNA REPAIR
- Excision Repair
- Direct Demethylation
- Photoreactivation
- Lesions Can Block Replication
- Double-Strand Break Repair
- Regulation of DNA Repair: The SOS Regulon
- Key Concepts
- INTRODUCTION
- MECHANISMS OF TRANSCRIPTION
- Initial Process of RNA Synthesis Is Transcription
- DNA Sequence Information Signals RNA Synthesis
- RNA Polymerase Catalyzes the Transcription Process
- Steps of Transcription in Prokaryotes
- TRANSCRIPTION IN EUKARYOTES
- Nature of Active Chromatin
- Transcription Activation Operates by Recruitment of RNA Polymerase
- Transcription by RNA Polymerase II
- Transcription by RNA Polymerase I
- Transcription by RNA Polymerase III
- The Common Enzymatic Basis for RNA Polymerase Action
- RNA PROCESSING
- Transfer RNA Is Modified by Cleavage, Addition, and Base Modification
- Ribosomal RNA Processing Releases Several RNAs from a Longer Precursor
- Messenger RNA Processing Ensures the Correct Coding Sequence
- RNA Polymerase II Recruits Processing Enzymes during Transcription in Eukaryotes
- Mutations in Splicing Signals Cause Human Diseases
- Alternate Pre-mRNA Splicing Can Lead to the Synthesis of Multiple Protein Isoforms from a Single DNA
- RNA EXPORT AND QUALITY CONTROL
- RNA INTERFERENCE
- TRANSCRIPTION-COUPLED DNA REPAIR
- NUCLEASES AND RNA TURNOVER
- Cytoplasmic Messenger RNA Turnover Is Coupled to Translation
- Key Concepts
- INTRODUCTION
- COMPONENTS OF THE TRANSLATIONAL APPARATUS
- Messenger RNA Transmits Information Encoded in DNA
- Transfer RNA Is a Bilingual Translator Molecule
- The Genetic Code Uses a Four-Letter Alphabet of Nucleotides
- Codon–Anticodon Interactions Permit Reading of mRNA
- Aminoacylation of Transfer RNA Activates Amino Acids for Protein Synthesis
- Ribosomes Are Machines for Protein Biosynthesis
- PROTEIN BIOSYNTHESIS
- Translation Is Directional and Colinear with mRNA
- Initiation of Protein Synthesis Is a Complex Process
- Elongation Is the Stepwise Formation of Peptide Bonds
- Termination of Polypeptide Synthesis Requires a Stop Codon
- Translation Has Significant Energy Cost
- Protein Synthesis in Mitochondria Differs Slightly
- Many Antibiotics and Toxins Target Protein Biosynthesis
- PROTEIN MATURATION: FOLDING, MODIFICATION, SECRETION, AND TARGETING
- Chaperones Aid in Protein Folding
- Proteins for Export Follow the Secretory Pathway
- Glycosylation of Proteins Occurs in the Endoplasmic Reticulum and Golgi Apparatus
- MEMBRANE AND ORGANELLE TARGETING
- Sorting of Proteins in the Secretory Pathway
- Import of Proteins by Mitochondria Is Complex
- Targeting Signals Direct Proteins to Specific Organelles
- FURTHER POSTTRANSLATIONAL MODIFICATIONS
- Partial Proteolysis Releases Insulin and Activates Zymogens
- Amino Acids Can Be Modified after Incorporation into Proteins
- Collagen Biosynthesis Requires Many Posttranslational Modifications
- REGULATION OF TRANSLATION
- PROTEIN DEGRADATION AND TURNOVER
- ATP-Dependent Proteolysis Occurs in Proteasomes
- Intracellular Digestion of Some Proteins Occurs in Lysosomes
- Other Proteolytic Systems
- Key Concepts
- INTRODUCTION
- POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION
- Nested PCR
- Quantitative Real-Time PCR
- RESTRICTION ENDONUCLEASE, RESTRICTION MAPS, AND DNA SEQUENCING
- Restriction Endonucleases Selectively Hydrolyze DNA
- Restriction Maps Permit Routine Preparation of Defined Segments of DNA
- Interrupted Enzymatic Cleavage Method: Sanger Procedure
- Dye-Terminator Sequencing
- RECOMBINANT DNA, CLONING, AND SELECTION OF CLONES
- DNA from Different Sources Can Be Ligated to Form a New DNA Species: Recombinant DNA
- Recombinant DNA Vectors Are Produced by Cloning
- Directional Cloning: DNA Inserted into Vector DNA in a Specific Direction
- Bacteria Transformed with Recombinant DNA and the Need for a Selection Process
- Recombinant DNA Molecules in a Gene Library
- Selection of Transformed Bacteria by Loss of Antibiotic Resistance
- α-Complementation for Selecting Bacteria Carrying Recombinant Plasmids
- PCR Circumvents the Need to Clone DNA
- DETECTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF NUCLEIC ACIDS AND DNA-BINDING PROTEINS
- Nucleic Acids as Probes for Specific DNA or RNA Sequences
- Southern Blot Technique for Identifying DNA Fragments
- Single-Strand Conformation Polymorphism
- Detection of mRNA
- Detection of Sequence-Specific DNA-Binding Proteins
- COMPLEMENTARY DNA AND COMPLEMENTARY DNA LIBRARIES
- mRNA as Template for DNA Synthesis Using Reverse Transcriptase
- BACTERIOPHAGE, COSMID, AND YEAST CLONING VECTORS AND ANALYSIS OF LONG STRETCHES OF DNA
- Bacteriophage as Cloning Vectors
- Cloning DNA Fragments into Cosmid and Artificial Chromosome Vectors
- Subcloning Permits Definition of Large Segments of DNA
- Chromosome Walking Defines Gene Arrangement in Long Stretches of DNA
- EXPRESSION VECTORS AND FUSION PROTEINS
- Foreign Genes Expressed in Bacteria Allow Synthesis of Their Encoded Proteins
- Expression Vectors in Eukaryotic Cells
- SITE-DIRECTED MUTAGENESIS
- Role of DNA Flanking Regions Evaluated by Deletion and Insertion Mutations
- Site-Directed Mutagenesis of a Single Nucleotide
- APPLICATIONS OF RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGIES
- Antisense Nucleic Acids in Research and Therapy
- Molecular Techniques Applied to the Whole Animal
- Recombinant DNA in Agriculture Has Commercial Impact
- GENOMICS, PROTEOMICS, AND MICROARRAY ANALYSIS
- Microarray Analysis
- Human Genome
- Key Concepts
- INTRODUCTION
- UNIT OF TRANSCRIPTION IN BACTERIA: THE OPERON
- LACTOSE OPERON OF E. COLI
- Repressor of Lactose Operon Is a Diffusible Protein
- Operator Sequence of Lactose Operon Is Contiguous with a Promoter and Three Structural Genes
- RNA Polymerase and a Regulator Protein Recognize Promoter Sequence of Lactose Operon
- Catabolite Activator Protein Binds Lactose Promoter
- TRYPTOPHAN OPERON OF E. COLI
- Tryptophan Operon Is Controlled by a Repressor Protein
- Attenuator Region of Tryptophan Operon
- Transcription Attenuation Controls Other Operons for Amino Acid Biosynthesis
- OTHER BACTERIAL OPERONS
- Synthesis of Ribosomal Proteins Is Regulated in a Coordinated Manner
- Stringent Response Controls Synthesis of rRNAs and tRNAs
- BACTERIAL TRANSPOSONS
- Transposons Are Mobile Segments of DNA
- Transposon Tn3 Contains Three Structural Genes
- GENE EXPRESSION IN EUKARYOTES
- Eukaryotic DNA Is Bound by Histones to Form Chromatin
- Methylation of DNA Correlates with Gene Inactivation
- PREINITIATION COMPLEX IN EUKARYOTES: TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS, RNA POLYMERASE II, AND DNA
- Eukaryotic Promoters and Other Sequences That Influence Transcription
- Modular Design of Eukaryotic Transcription Factors
- Common Motifs in Proteins That Bind DNA and Regulate Transcription
- REGULATION OF EUKARYOTIC GENE EXPRESSION
- Regulating the Regulators
- Activation of Transcription of the LDL Receptor Gene Illustrates Many Features Found in Eukaryotic G
- Epigenetic Control of Gene Expression
- Proteins II: Structure–Function Relationships in Protein Families
- Key Concepts
- INTRODUCTION
- ANTIBODY MOLECULES: THE IMMUNOGLOBULIN SUPERFAMILY OF PROTEINS
- Antibody Molecules Contain Four Polypeptide Chains
- Immunoglobulins in a Class Contain Homologous CH Regions
- There Are Two Antigen-Binding Sites per Antibody Molecule
- Genetics of the Immunoglobulins
- Immunoglobulin Fold Is Found In a Large Family of Proteins with Different Functional Roles
- PROTEINS WITH A COMMON CATALYTIC MECHANISM: SERINE PROTEASES
- Proteolytic Enzymes Are Classified by Their Catalytic Mechanism
- Serine Proteases Are Synthesized as Zymogens and in Multiple Domain Proteins
- Tertiary Structures of the Catalytic Domains of Serine Proteases Are Similar
- Serine Proteases Have Similar Structure–Function Relationships
- Sequence Homology in Serine Proteases
- Mechanism of Serine Protease Catalysis
- Specific Protein Inhibitors of Serine Proteases
- HEMOGLOBIN AND MYOGLOBIN
- Human Hemoglobin Occurs in Several Forms
- Myoglobin: A Single Polypeptide with One O2-Binding Site
- The Heme Prosthetic Group Is Site of O2 Binding
- X-Ray Crystallography Has Defined the Structures of Hemoglobin and Myoglobin
- A Simple Equilibrium Defines O2 Binding to Myoglobin
- Binding of O2 to Hemoglobin Involves Cooperativity between Subunits
- Hemoglobin Facilitates Transport of CO2 and NO
- Decrease in pKa of Acid Groups with Change from T to R Conformation Releases Protons
- Hemoglobin Delivers Nitric Oxide (NO) to the Capillary Wall of Tissues Where It Promotes O2 Delivery
- THE BASAL LAMINA PROTEIN COMPLEX
- Protein Composition of the Basal Lamina
- The Molecular Structure of Basal Lamina Is Formed from Networks of Laminin and Type IV Collagen
- Focal Contact in Cell Membrane Interconnects Extracellular Matrix with Cytoskeleton
- Key Concepts
- INTRODUCTION
- CLASSIFICATIONS OF ENZYMES
- Class 1: Oxidoreductases
- Class 2: Transferases
- Class 3: Hydrolases
- Class 4: Lyases
- Class 5: Isomerases
- Class 6: Ligases
- GENERAL CONCEPTS OF ENZYME MECHANISMS
- Thermodynamic Considerations
- Binding of Substrate by an Enzyme
- Transition State
- Covalent Binding of Substrate to Enzyme
- pH Alters a Reaction by Affecting General Acids and Bases
- ACTIVE SITE OF AN ENZYME
- Stereochemistry of Active Site
- Influence of Groups on the Substrate Distal to the Bond Being Modified
- COENZYMES, CO-SUBSTRATES, AND COFACTORS
- Coenzymes
- Adenosine Triphosphate May Be a Second Substrate or a Modulator of Activity
- Metal Ion Cofactors
- KINETICS OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
- Rate of Product Formation
- Rate of Substrate Disappearance
- Reversible Reactions
- ENZYME KINETICS OF ONE-SUBSTRATE REACTIONS
- Michaelis–Menten Equation
- Significance of kcat in the Michaelis–Menten Equation
- Low Km versus High kcat
- Calculating the Constants
- Effect of Assay Conditions
- KINETICS OF TWO-SUBSTRATE REACTIONS
- Sequential Mechanism
- Ping-Pong Mechanism
- Kmapp
- INHIBITORS
- Competitive Inhibition
- Uncompetitive Inhibition
- Noncompetitive Inhibition
- Lineweaver–Burk Plots in the Presence of Inhibitors
- Other Inhibitors
- Enzyme Inhibitors as Drugs
- REGULATION OF ENZYME ACTIVITY
- Covalent Modification
- Allosteric Control of Enzyme Activity
- Multi-subunit Enzymes: Cooperativity
- Regulatory Subunits Modulate the Activity of Catalytic Subunits
- REGULATION OF METABOLIC PATHWAYS
- CLINICAL APPLICATIONS OF ENZYMES
- Measurement of Plasma Enzymes
- Metabolomics and Proteomics
- Key Concepts
- INTRODUCTION
- CYTOCHROMES P450: PROPERTIES AND FUNCTION
- CY TOCHROME P450 ELECTRON TRANSPORT SYSTEMS
- NADPH-Cytochrome P450 Reductase Is the Obligatory Flavoprotein Electron Donor in the Endoplasmic Ret
- NADPH-Adrenodoxin Reductase is the Flavoprotein Electron Donor in Mitochondria
- CYTOCHROMES P450: NOMENCLATURE AND ISOFORMS
- CYTOCHROMES P450: SUBSTRATES AND PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS
- Cytochromes P450 Participate in the Synthesis of Steroid Hormones and Oxygenation of Endogenous Comp
- Cytochromes P450 Oxidize Exogenous Lipophilic Substrates
- CYTOCHROME P450: INDUCTION AND INHIBITION
- Drug–Drug Interactions
- Cytochrome P450 Genetic Polymorphisms
- Therapeutic Inhibition of Cytochrome P450
- NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASES: PROPERTIES AND ENZYMATIC FUNCTION
- NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE ISOFORMS AND PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS
- NOSI
- NOSII
- NOSIII
- Key Concepts
- INTRODUCTION
- CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MEMBRANES
- Lipids Are Major Components of Membranes
- Glycerophospholipids Are the Most Abundant Lipids of Membranes
- Sphingolipids Are Present in Membranes
- Cholesterol Is an Important Component of Plasma Membranes
- Lipid Composition Varies between Membranes
- Membrane Proteins
- Membrane Carbohydrates Are Part of Glycoproteins or Glycolipids
- MICELLES, LIPID BILAYERS, AND LIPOSOMES
- Lipids Form Vesicular Structures
- General Properties of Lipid Bilayers
- STRUCTURE OF BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES
- Mosaic Model of Biological Membranes
- Lipids Are Asymmetrically Distributed in Membranes
- Integral Membrane Proteins
- Peripheral Membrane Proteins: Lipid Anchors
- Lipids and Proteins Diffuse in Membrane Leaflets
- Microdomains of Lipid–Protein Complexes Are Present in Membranes
- Dynamic Environment of Membranes
- MEMBRANE RECEPTORS
- TRANSLOCATION OF MOLECULES THROUGH MEMBRANES
- Some Molecules Diffuse through Cell Membranes
- Protein-Based Mechanisms for Translocation
- MEMBRANE CHANNELS AND PORES
- Structures of Membrane Channels
- Control and Selectivity of Membrane Channels
- Representative Membrane Channels and Pores
- MEMBRANE TRANSPORT PROTEINS
- Energetics of Membrane Transport Systems
- Mammalian Membrane Transporters
- ELECTROCHEMICAL-POTENTIAL-DRIVEN TRANSPORTERS
- Representative Electrochemical-Potential-Driven Transporters
- PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORTERS
- Representative Primary Active Transporters
- PORE-FORMING TOXINS AND IONOPHORES
- Key Concepts
- SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION BETWEEN CELLS
- INTERCELLULAR SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION
- Two Fundamental Modes of Intercellular Signal Transduction
- Secreted Signaling Molecules
- RECEPTORS FOR SECRETED MOLECULES
- INTRACELLULAR SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION BY CELL SURFACE RECEPTORS
- Ligands, Receptors, and Receptor–Ligand Interactions
- Relationships between Receptors, Effectors, and Second Messengers
- Protein Phosphorylation in Signal Transduction
- GTP-Binding Regulatory Proteins in Signal Transduction
- Other Components of Receptor-Mediated Signaling Complexes and Cascades
- Ligand–Receptor Interaction and Downstream Signaling Events
- Termination of Signal Transduction by Cell Surface Receptors
- LIGAND-GATED ION CHANNEL RECEPTORS
- Ion Channel Receptors
- Termination of Signaling by Ion Channel Receptors
- Other Ligands of Ion Channel Receptors
- ENZYME-LINKED RECEPTORS
- Physiological Roles and Extracellular Ligands
- Receptor Tyrosine Kinases (RTK)
- Receptor Serine/Threonine Kinases
- CYTOKINE RECEPTORS
- Cytokine Receptors: Structure and Function
- G PROTEIN-COUPLED RECEPTORS
- Physiological Roles and Extracellular Ligands
- Structure of G Protein-Coupled Receptors
- Heterotrimeric G Proteins
- The G Protein Cycle
- CYCLIC AMP-BASED SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION
- Regulation of Cyclic AMP Synthesis and Degradation
- Intracellular Signaling Mechanisms of Cyclic AMP
- CYCLIC GMP-BASED SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION
- Regulation of Cyclic GMP Synthesis and Degradation
- Intracellular Signaling Mechanisms of Cyclic GMP
- CALCIUM-BASED SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION
- Regulation of Cytosolic Ca2+ Concentration
- Calcium Activation of Calmodulin-Dependent Protein Kinases and Phosphatases
- PHOSPHOLIPID-BASED SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION
- Regulated Phospholipid Metabolism as a Component of Intracellular Signaling Pathways
- Regulation of Phospholipase C and Phospholipase D
- Diacylglycerol and Protein Kinase C
- PIP3, Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinases, and Protein Kinase B
- Phospholipase A2 and Generation of Arachidonic Acid Metabolites
- INTEGRATION OF SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION PATHWAYS INTO SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION NETWORKS
- Bioenergetics, Mitochondria, and Oxidative Metabolism
- Key Concepts
- ENERGY-PRODUCING AND ENERGY-UTILIZING SYSTEMS
- ATP Links Energy-Producing and Energy-Utilizing Systems
- NAD+ and NADPH in Catabolism and Anabolism
- THERMODYNAMIC RELATIONSHIPS AND ENERGY-RICH COMPONENTS
- Free Energy Is Energy Available for Useful Work
- Caloric Value of Dietary Components
- Compounds Are Classified on the Basis of Energy Released on Hydrolysis of Specific Groups
- Free-Energy Changes Can Be Determined from Coupled Enzyme Reactions
- High-Energy Bond Energies of Various Groups Can Be Transferred from One Compound to Another
- SOURCES AND FATES OF ACETYL COENZYME A
- Metabolic Sources and Fates of Pyruvate
- Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Is a Multienzyme Complex
- Acetyl CoA Is Used in Several Different Pathways
- THE TRICARBOXYLIC ACID CYCLE
- Reactions of the Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle
- Conversion of the Acetyl Group of Acetyl CoA to CO2 and H2O Conserves Energy
- Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle Is a Source of Biosynthetic Intermediates
- Anaplerotic Reactions Replenish Intermediates of the Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle
- Activity of Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle Is Carefully Regulated
- STRUCTURE AND COMPARTMENTATION BY MITOCHONDRIAL MEMBRANES
- Inner and Outer Mitochondrial Membranes Have Different Compositions and Functions
- ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
- Oxidation–Reduction Reactions
- Mitochondrial Electron Transport Is a Multi-component System
- Complex I: NADH–Ubiquinone Oxidoreductase
- Complex II: Succinate–Ubiquinone Oxidoreductase
- Complex III: Ubiquinol–Cytochrome c Oxidoreductase
- Complex IV: Cytochrome c Oxidase
- Electron Transport Chain Inhibitors
- OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
- Coupling of ATP Synthesis and Electron Transport
- ATP Synthase
- MITOCHONDRIAL INNER MEMBRANE CONTAINS SUBSTRATE TRANSPORT SYSTEMS
- Transport of Adenine Nucleotides and Phosphate
- Substrate Shuttles Transport Reducing Equivalents across the Inner Mitochondrial Membrane
- Acetyl Units Are Transported as Citrate
- Mitochondria Have a Specific Calcium Transporter
- Uncoupling Proteins
- MITOCHONDRIAL GENES AND DISEASES
- REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES (ROS)
- Production of Reactive Oxygen Species
- Damage Caused by Reactive Oxygen Species
- Cellular Defenses against Reactive Oxygen Species
- Key Concepts
- INTRODUCTION
- GLYCOLYSIS
- Glycolysis Occurs in All Human Cells
- Glucose Is Metabolized Differently in Various Cells
- GLYCOLYSIS PATHWAY
- Glycolysis Occurs in Three Stages
- ATP Yield and Balanced Equation for Anaerobic Glycolysis
- NADH Generated by Glycolysis Has to Be Oxidized Back to NAD+: Role of Lactate Dehydrogenase and Subs
- Shuttles Are Important in Other Oxidoreduction Pathways
- Sulfhydryl Reagents and Fluoride Inhibit Glycolysis
- Hyperglycemia Inhibits Glycolysis
- Arsenate Prevents Net Synthesis of ATP without Inhibiting Glycolysis
- REGULATION OF GLYCOLYSIS
- Hexokinase and Glucokinase Have Different Properties
- 6-Phosphofructo-1-kinase Is a Regulatory Enzyme of Glycolysis
- Hormonal Control of 6-Phosphofructo-1-kinase by cAMP and Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate
- The Bifunctional Enzyme 6-Phosphofructo-2-kinase/Fructose 2,6-bisphosphatase Is Regulated by Phospho
- Heart Contains a Different Isoenzyme of 6-Phosphofructo-2-kinase/Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate
- Pyruvate Kinase Is Also a Regulatory Enzyme of Glycolysis
- GLUCONEOGENESIS
- Glucose Synthesis Is Required for Survival
- Glucose Synthesis from Lactate
- Glucose Is Synthesized from Most Amino Acids
- Glucose Can Be Synthesized from Fatty Acids with an Odd but Not an Even Number of Carbons
- Glucose Is Also Synthesized from Fructose
- Gluconeogenesis Requires Expenditure of ATP
- Gluconeogenesis Has Several Sites of Regulation
- Hormonal Control of Gluconeogenesis Is Critical for Homeostasis
- Alcohol Oxidation Inhibits Gluconeogenesis
- GLYCOGENOLYSIS AND GLYCOGENESIS
- Glycogen Is the Storage Form of Glucose
- Glycogen Phosphorylase Initiates Glycogenolysis
- Debranching Enzyme Is Required for Glycogenolysis
- Glycogenesis Requires Unique Enzymes
- Special Features of Glycogenolysis and Glycogenesis
- Glycogen Synthesis and Degradation Are Highly Regulated
- Effector Control of Glycogen Metabolism
- Phosphorylase a is a “Glucose Receptor” in Liver
- Hormonal and Neural Control of Glycogen Synthesis and Degradation
- Key Concepts
- PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY
- Pentose Phosphate Pathway Has Two Phases
- Glucose 6-Phosphate Oxidization Conserves Redox Equivalents as NADPH and Decarboxylation Supplies Pe
- Interconversions of Pentose Phosphates Lead to Intermediates of Glycolysis
- Glucose 6-Phosphate Can Be Completely Oxidized to CO2
- Pentose Phosphate Pathway Serves as a NADPH Regenerating System and Supplier of Pentose Phosphates
- SUGAR INTERCONVERSIONS AND NUCLEOTIDE-LINKED SUGAR FORMATION
- Isomerization and Phosphorylation Are Common Reactions for Interconverting Carbohydrates
- Nucleotide-Linked Sugars Are Intermediates in Many Sugar Transformations
- Epimerization Interconverts Nucleotide-Linked Glucose and Galactose
- Glucuronic Acid Is Formed by Oxidation of UDP-Glucose
- Decarboxylation, Oxidoreduction, and Transamidation of Sugars Yield Necessary Products
- Sialic Acids Are Derived from N-Acetylglucosamine
- BIOSYNTHESIS OF COMPLEX POLYSACCHARIDES
- GLYCOPROTEINS
- Glycoproteins Contain Variable Amounts of Carbohydrate
- Synthesis of N-Linked Glycoproteins Involves Dolichol Phosphate
- Glycan Function
- PROTEOGLYCANS
- There Are Six Classes of Proteoglycans
- Biosynthesis of Chondroitin Sulfate Is Typical of Glycosaminoglycan Formation
- Key Concepts
- INTRODUCTION
- CHEMICAL NATURE OF FATTY ACIDS AND ACYLGLYCEROLS
- Fatty Acids Are Alkyl Chains Terminating in a Carboxyl Group
- Most Fatty Acids in Humans Occur as Triacylglycerols
- The Hydrophobicity of Triacylglycerols Is Important for Their Functions
- INTERORGAN TRANSPORT OF FATTY ACIDS AND THEIR PRIMARY PRODUCTS
- Lipid Transport in the Fed State
- Lipid Transport in the Fasted State
- SYNTHESIS OF FATTY ACIDS: LIPOGENESIS
- Glucose Is the Major Precursor for Fatty Acid Synthesis
- Pathway of Fatty Acid Biosynthesis
- The Citrate Cleavage Pathway Provides Acetyl CoA and NADPH for Lipogenesis in the Cytosol
- Modification of Fatty Acids
- Fatty Acid Synthase Can Produce Fatty Acids other than Palmitate
- Fatty Acyl CoAs May Be Reduced to Fatty Alcohols
- STORAGE OF FATTY ACIDS AS TRIACYLGLYCEROL
- Triacylglycerols Are Synthesized from Fatty Acyl CoAs and Glycerol 3-Phosphate
- Mobilization of Triacylglycerols Requires Hydrolysis
- Triacylglycerol Synthesis Occurs during Fasting as Part of a Triacylglycerol-Fatty Acid Cycle Involv
- UTILIZATION OF FATTY ACIDS FOR ENERGY PRODUCTION
- β-Oxidation of Straight-Chain Fatty Acids Is a Major Energy-Producing Process
- Energy Yield from the β-Oxidation of Fatty Acids
- Comparison of Fatty Acid Synthesis and Oxidation
- β-Oxidation of Some Fatty Acids Requires Additional Steps
- Ketone Bodies Are Formed from Acetyl CoA
- Utilization of Ketone Bodies by Nonhepatic Tissues Requires Formation of Acetoacetyl CoA
- Peroxisomal Oxidation of Fatty Acids Serves Many Functions
- REGULATION OF LIPID METABOLISM
- Regulation in the Fed State
- Regulation in the Fasted State
- Regulation of Fatty Acid Oxidation
- Fatty Acids as Regulatory Molecules
- Key Concepts
- INTRODUCTION
- PHOSPHOLIPIDS
- Phospholipids Contain Phosphatidic Acid Linked to a Base
- Phospholipids in Membranes Serve a Variety of Roles
- Biosynthesis of Phospholipids
- Asymmetric Distribution of Fatty Acids in Phospholipids Is due to Remodeling Reactions
- Plasmalogens Are Synthesized from Fatty Alcohols
- CHOLESTEROL
- Cholesterol Is Widely Distributed in Free and Esterified Forms
- Cholesterol Is Synthesized from Acetyl CoA
- Plasma Lipoproteins
- Cholesterol Synthesis Is Regulated
- Cholesterol Is Excreted Primarily as Bile Acids
- SPHINGOLIPIDS
- Synthesis of Sphingosine
- Ceramides Are Fatty Acid Amide Derivatives of Sphingosine
- Sphingomyelin Is a Phosphorus-Containing Sphingolipid
- Glycosphingolipids Usually Contain Galactose or Glucose
- Sphingolipidoses Are Lysosomal Storage Diseases
- PROSTAGLANDINS AND THROMBOXANES
- Prostaglandins and Thromboxanes Are Derivatives of Monocarboxylic Acids
- Synthesis of Prostaglandins Involves a Cyclooxygenase
- Prostaglandins Exhibit Many Physiological Effects
- LIPOXYGENASE AND OXY-EICOSATETRAENOIC ACIDS
- Monohydroperoxyeicosatetraenoic Acids Are Products of Lipoxygenase Action
- Leukotrienes, Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic Acids, and Lipoxins Are Hormones Derived from HPETEs
- Leukotrienes and HETEs Affect Several Physiological Processes
- Key Concepts
- INCORPORATION OF NITROGEN INTO AMINO ACIDS
- Most Amino Acids Are Obtained from the Diet
- Amino Groups Are Transferred from One Amino Acid to Form Another
- Pyridoxal Phosphate Is Cofactor for Aminotransferases
- Glutamate Dehydrogenase Incorporates and Produces Ammonia
- Free Ammonia Is Incorporated into and Produced from Glutamine
- Amino Acid Oxidases Remove Amino Groups
- TRANSPORT OF NITROGEN TO LIVER AND KIDNEY
- Protein Is Degraded Constantly
- Ammonia Is Released in Liver and Kidney
- UREA CYCLE
- Nitrogen Atoms of Urea Come from Ammonia and Aspartate
- Synthesis of Urea Requires Five Enzymes
- Urea Synthesis Is Regulated by an Allosteric Effector and by Enzyme Induction
- Metabolic Disorders of Urea Synthesis Have Serious Consequences
- BIOSYNTHESIS OF NONESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS
- DEGRADATION OF AMINO ACIDS
- Nonessential Amino Acids
- Essential Amino Acids
- Branched-Chain Amino Acids
- IMPORTANT METABOLITES DERIVED FROM AMINO ACIDS
- Metabolites Made from More than One Amino Acid
- Glutathione
- HEME BIOSYNTHESIS
- Enzymes Involved in Heme Biosynthesis
- ALA Synthase Catalyzes Rate-Limiting Step of Heme Biosynthesis
- Porphyrias
- HEME CATABOLISM
- Bilirubin Is Conjugated to Form Bilirubin Diglucuronide in Liver
- Intravascular Hemolysis Requires Scavenging of Iron
- Key Concepts
- INTRODUCTION
- METABOLIC FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEOTIDES
- Distribution of Nucleotides Varies with Cell Type
- 5-PHOSPHORIBOSYL-1-PYROPHOSPHATE AND GLUTAMINE IN DE NOVO SYNTHESIS OF NUCLEOTIDES
- SYNTHESIS OF PURINE NUCLEOTIDES
- Formation of IMP
- Purine Nucleotide Synthesis Is Highly Regulated
- Purine Bases and Nucleosides Are Salvaged to Reform Nucleotides
- Purine Nucleotides Are Interconverted to Balance Cellular Levels of Adenine and Guanine Nucleotides
- GTP IS THE PRECURSOR OF TETRAHYDROBIOPTERIN
- URIC ACID IS THE END PRODUCT OF PURINE DEGRADATION IN HUMANS
- METABOLISM OF PYRIMIDINE NUCLEOTIDES
- Synthesis of Pyrimidine Nucleotides
- Pyrimidine Nucleotide Synthesis Is Regulated at the Level of Carbamoyl Phosphate Synthetase II
- Pyrimidine Bases Are Salvaged to Reform Nucleotides
- DEOXYRIBONUCLEOTIDE FORMATION
- Deoxyribonucleotides Are Formed by Reduction of Ribonucleoside 5’-Diphosphates
- Deoxythymidylate Synthesis Requires N 5, N 10-Methylene H4Folate
- Pyrimidine Interconversions: Deoxyribopyrimidine Nucleosides and Nucleotides
- DEGRADATION OF PYRIMIDINE NUCLEOTIDES
- NUCLEOSIDE AND NUCLEOTIDE KINASES
- NUCLEOTIDE METABOLIZING ENZYMES AS A FUNCTION OF THE CELL CYCLE
- NUCLEOTIDE COENZYME SYNTHESIS
- CHEMOTHERAPEUTIC AGENTS THAT INTERFERE WITH PURINE AND PYRIMIDINE NUCLEOTIDE METABOLISM
- Inhibitors of Purine and Pyrimidine Nucleotide Metabolism
- Biochemical Basis for Responses to Chemotherapeutic Agents
- Key Concepts
- INTRODUCTION
- STARVE-FEED CYCLE
- In the Well-Fed State the Diet Supplies the Energy Requirements
- In the Early Fasting State Hepatic Glycogenolysis Maintains Blood Glucose
- The Fasting State Requires Gluconeogenesis from Amino Acids and Glycerol
- In the Early Refed State Glycogen Is Formed by the Indirect Pathway
- Important Interorgan Metabolic Interactions
- Energy Requirements, Reserves, and Caloric Homeostasis
- The Five Phases of Glucose Homeostasis
- MECHANISMS INVOLVED IN SWITCHING LIVER METABOLISM BETWEEN THE WELL-FED AND STARVED STATES
- Substrate Availability Controls Many Metabolic Pathways
- Allosteric Effectors Regulate Key Enzymes
- Covalent Modification Regulates Key Enzymes
- Changes in the Amounts of Key Enzymes Provide Long-Term Adaptation
- INTERRELATIONSHIP OF TISSUES IN NUTRITIONAL AND HORMONAL STATES
- Obesity
- Dieting
- Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
- Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
- Cancer
- Aerobic and Anaerobic Exercise
- Pregnancy
- Lactation
- Stress and Injury
- Liver Disease
- Renal Disease
- Consumption of Alcohol
- Acid-Base Balance
- Colon
- Key Concepts
- INTRODUCTION
- HORMONES AND THE HORMONAL CASCADE SYSTEM
- Hormonal Cascade Systems Amplify Specific Signals
- Major Polypeptide Hormones and Their Actions
- SYNTHESIS OF POLYPEPTIDE AND AMINO-ACID-DERIVED HORMONES
- Polypeptide Hormones: Gene Coding
- Amino-Acid-Derived Hormones
- Inactivation and Degradation of Amino-Acid-Derived Hormones
- PROTEIN HORMONE SIGNALING
- Overview of Signaling
- Cyclic Hormonal Systems
- Ovarian Cycle Is Controlled by Pulsatile and Cyclic Secretion of Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone
- MEMBRANE HORMONE RECEPTORS
- Some Hormone-Receptor Interactions Involve Multiple Hormone Subunits
- Internalization of Receptors
- INTRACELLULAR HORMONE CASCADES: PROTEIN KINASES
- Insulin Receptor: Transduction through Tyrosine Kinase
- Activity of Vasopressin: Protein Kinase A
- Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH): Protein Kinase C
- Activity of Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF): Protein Kinase G
- STEROID HORMONES
- Structures and Functions of Steroid Hormones
- Biosynthesis of Steroid Hormones
- Metabolism of Steroid Hormones
- Regulation of Steroid Hormone Synthesis
- Vitamin D3
- Transport of Steroid Hormones: Plasma-Binding Proteins
- STEROID HORMONE RECEPTORS
- Steroid Hormones Bind Intracellular Receptor Proteins
- Orphan Receptors
- Down-regulation of Steroid Receptor by Ligand
- Nuclear Hormone Receptors, Coactivators, and Corepressors
- Nongenomic Steroid Effects
- Molecular Cell Biology
- Key Concepts
- NERVOUS TISSUE: METABOLISM AND FUNCTION
- Essential Concepts
- ATP and Transmembrane Electrical Potential in Neurons
- Neuron–Neuron Interaction Occurs through Synapses
- Synthesis, Storage, and Release of Neurotransmitters
- Termination of Signals at Synaptic Junctions
- Neuropeptides Are Derived from Precursor Proteins
- THE EYE: METABOLISM AND VISION
- Cornea Derives ATP from Aerobic Metabolism
- Lens Consists Mostly of Water and Protein
- Retina Derives ATP from Anaerobic Glycolysis
- Visual Transduction Involves Photochemical, Biochemical, and Electrical Events
- Rods and Cones are Photoreceptor Cells
- Color Vision Originates in Cones
- MOLECULAR MOTORS AND ASSOCIATED PROTEINS
- Muscle Contraction
- Skeletal Muscle: Structural Organization of its Components
- Skeletal Muscle Contraction
- Cardiac Muscle: Structure and Contraction
- Smooth Muscle Contraction: Calcium Regulation
- Energy Reservoirs for Muscle Contraction
- Other Classes of Myosins and Molecular Motors
- MECHANISM OF BLOOD COAGULATION
- Biochemical Processes of Hemostasis
- Procoagulation Phase of Hemostasis (Phase 1)
- Some Properties of Proteins Involved in Clot Formation
- Anticoagulation Phase of Hemostasis (Phase 2)
- Fibrinolysis Phase of Hemostasis (Phase 3)
- Role of Gla Residues in Blood Coagulation Factors
- Key Concepts
- INTRODUCTION
- CELL DIVISION CYCLE
- Regulation of Cell Cycle
- Growth Factor Signal Transduction Pathway
- APOPTOSIS: PROGRAMMED CELL DEATH
- Major Pathways of Apoptosis
- p53 Induction of Apoptosis
- MAPK Pathways Regulate Both Cell Death and Cell Survival
- CANCER
- Oncogenes and Tumor Suppressor Genes
- Properties of Cancer Cells
- Multiple Mutations Are Required to Form a Cancer
- Genetic and Biochemical Heterogeneity of Cancers
- Mutagens and Promoters Cause Cancers
- Biochemical Analysis of Individual Cancers
- Key Concepts
- INTRODUCTION
- Nutrient Types
- Several Gastrointestinal Organs Contribute to Food Digestion
- GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
- Different Sites of Digestion
- Digestive Enzymes Are Secreted as Proenzymes
- Secretion Is Regulated by Many Secretagogues
- EPITHELIAL TRANSPORT
- Solute Transport May Be Transcellular or Paracellular
- NaCl Absorption Depends on Na+/K+-exchanging ATPase, Membrane Transporters, and Channels
- NaCl Secretion Depends on Na+/K+-exchanging ATPase, Membrane Transporters, and Channels
- Ion Concentration Gradients and Electrical Potentials Energize Transport of Nutrients
- Gastric Parietal Cells Secrete HCl
- DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF PROTEINS
- Peptidases Assure Efficient Protein Digestion
- Amino Acid and Di- and Tripeptide Transporters
- DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF CARBOHYDRATES
- Disaccharides and Polysaccharides Require Hydrolysis
- Monosaccharide Transporters
- DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF LIPIDS
- Digestion of Lipids Requires Overcoming Their Limited Water Solubility
- Lipids Are Digested by Gastric and Pancreatic Lipases
- Bile Acid Micelles Solubilize Lipids during Digestion
- Most Absorbed Lipids Are Incorporated into Chylomicrons
- BILE ACID METABOLISM
- Bile Acid Chemistry and Synthesis
- Bile Acid Transport
- Key Concepts
- INTRODUCTION
- ASSESSMENT OF MALNUTRITION
- DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES
- FAT-SOLUBLE VITAMINS
- Vitamin A Is Derived from Plant Carotenoids
- Vitamin D Synthesis Requires Sunlight
- Vitamin E Is a Mixture of Tocopherols and Tocotrienols
- Vitamin K Is a Quinone Derivative
- WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS
- ENERGY-RELEASING WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS
- Thiamin Forms the Coenzyme Thiamin Pyrophosphate
- Riboflavin Forms the Coenzymes FAD and FMN
- Niacin Forms the Coenzymes NAD and NADP
- Pyridoxine (Vitamin B6) Forms the Coenzyme Pyridoxal Phosphate
- Pantothenic Acid and Biotin Form Coenzymes Involved in Energy Metabolism
- α-Lipoic Acid Plays Multiple Roles in the Body
- HEMATOPOIETIC WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS
- Folic Acid Functions as Tetrahydrofolate in One-Carbon Metabolism
- Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin) Contains Cobalt in a Tetrapyrrole Ring
- OTHER WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS
- Ascorbic Acid Functions in Reduction and Hydroxylation Reactions
- Choline and Carnitine Perform Several Functions
- MACROMINERALS
- Calcium Has Many Physiological Roles
- Magnesium Is Required by Many Enzymes
- TRACE MINERALS
- Iron Deficiency Causes Anemia and Decreased Immunocompetence
- Iodine Is Incorporated Into Thyroid Hormones
- Zinc Is Required by Many Proteins
- Copper Is a Cofactor for Important Enzymes
- Chromium Is a Component of Chromodulin
- Selenium Is Found in Selenoproteins
- Manganese, Molybdenum, Fluoride, and Boron Are Essential Trace Elements
- THE AMERICAN DIET: FACT AND FALLACY
- ASSESSMENT OF NUTRITIONAL STATUS IN CLINICAL PRACTICE
- NUTRIGENOMICS–THE FUTURE OF NUTRITION
- Key Concepts
- INTRODUCTION
- ENERGY METABOLISM
- Energy Content of Food Is Measured Primarily in Kilocalories
- Energy Expenditure Is Influenced by Four Factors
- PROTEIN METABOLISM
- Dietary Protein Serves Many Roles Including Energy Production
- Nitrogen Balance Relates Intake to Excretion of Nitrogen
- Essential Amino Acids Must Be Present in the Diet
- Protein Sparing Is Related to Dietary Content of Carbohydrate and Fat
- Normal Adult Protein Requirements
- Protein Requirements Are Increased during Growth and Illness
- PROTEIN-ENERGY MALNUTRITION
- EXCESS PROTEIN-ENERGY INTAKE
- Obesity Has Dietary and Genetic Components
- Obesity, Insulin Resistance, Metabolic Syndrome, and Type 2 Diabetes
- Obesity Has Significant Health Implications
- CARBOHYDRATES
- FATS
- FIBER
- COMPOSITION OF MACRONUTRIENTS IN THE DIET
- Composition of the Diet Affects Serum Cholesterol
- Carbohydrates, Glycemic Index, and Glycemic Load
- Nutritional Protein Requirements Are Achieved by Mixing Vegetable and Animal Proteins
- Fiber from Varied Sources Is Desirable
- Dietary Recommendations
- NUTRIGENETICS AND DIET COMPOSITION
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