Efnisyfirlit

• Cover Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Preface
• Acknowledgments
• To the Student
• Chapter 1. Earth and Its Atmosphere
  • 1.1. The Atmosphere and the Scientific Method
  • 1.2. Overview of Earth’s Atmosphere
    • 1.2a. The Early Atmosphere
    • 1.2b. Composition of Today’s Atmosphere
  • 1.3. Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere
    • 1.3a. A Brief Look at Air Pressure and Air Density
    • 1.3b. Layers of the Atmosphere
    • 1.3c. The Ionosphere
  • 1.4. Weather and Climate
    • 1.4a. Meteorology—A Brief History
    • 1.4b. A Satellite’s View of the Weather
    • 1.4c. Weather and Climate in Our Lives
  • Summary
  • Key Terms
  • Questions for Review
  • Questions for Thought
  • Problems and Exercises
• Chapter 2. Energy: Warming and Cooling Earth and the Atmosphere
  • 2.1. Energy, Temperature, and Heat
    • 2.1a. Temperature Scales
    • 2.1b. Specific Heat
    • 2.1c. Latent Heat—The Hidden Warmth
  • 2.2. Heat Transfer in the Atmosphere
    • 2.2a. Conduction
    • 2.2b. Convection
  • 2.3. Radiant Energy
    • 2.3a. Radiation and Temperature
    • 2.3b. Radiation of the Sun and Earth
  • 2.4. Radiation: Absorption, Emission, and Equilibrium
    • 2.4a. Selective Absorbers and the Atmospheric Greenhouse Effect
    • 2.4b. Enhancement of the Greenhouse Effect
    • 2.4c. Warming the Air from Below
    • 2.4d. Shortwave Radiation Streaming from the Sun
    • 2.4e. Earth’s Annual Energy Balance
  • 2.5. Solar Particles, the Aurora, and Space Weather
    • 2.5a. Solar Storms and Space Weather
  • Summary
  • Key Terms
  • Questions for Review
  • Questions for Thought
  • Problems and Exercises
• Chapter 3. Seasonal and Daily Temperatures
  • 3.1. Why Earth Has Seasons
    • 3.1a. Seasons in the Northern Hemisphere
    • 3.1b. Seasons in the Southern Hemisphere
  • 3.2. Local Seasonal Variations
  • 3.3. Daily Warming and Cooling of Air Near the Surface
    • 3.3a. Daytime Warming
    • 3.3b. Extreme High Temperatures
    • 3.3c. Nighttime Cooling
    • 3.3d. Cold Air at the Surface
    • 3.3e. Protecting Crops from the Cold Night Air
    • 3.3f. Record Low Temperatures
    • 3.3g. Daily Temperature Variations
    • 3.3h. Regional Temperature Variations
  • 3.4. Applications of Air Temperature Data
    • 3.4a. Air Temperature and Human Comfort
    • 3.4b. Measuring Air Temperature
  • Summary
  • Key Terms
  • Questions for Review
  • Questions for Thought
  • Problems and Exercises
• Chapter 4. Atmospheric Humidity
  • 4.1. Circulation of Water in the Atmosphere
  • 4.2. The Many Phases of Water
  • 4.3. Evaporation, Condensation, and Saturation
  • 4.4. Humidity
    • 4.4a. Absolute Humidity
    • 4.4b. Specific Humidity and Mixing Ratio
    • 4.4c. Vapor Pressure
    • 4.4d. Relative Humidity
    • 4.4e. Relative Humidity and Dew Point
  • 4.5. Assessment and Impacts of Humidity
    • 4.5a. Relative Humidity in the Home
    • 4.5b. Relative Humidity and Human Discomfort
    • 4.5c. Measuring Humidity
  • Summary
  • Key Terms
  • Questions for Review
  • Questions for Thought
  • Problems and Exercises
• Chapter 5. Condensation: Dew, Fog, and Clouds
  • 5.1. The Formation of Dew and Frost
  • 5.2. Condensation Nuclei
  • 5.3. Haze
  • 5.4. Fog
    • 5.4a. Radiation Fog
    • 5.4b. Advection Fog
    • 5.4c. Upslope Fog
    • 5.4d. Evaporation (Mixing) Fog
  • 5.5. Foggy Weather
  • 5.6. Clouds
    • 5.6a. Classification of Clouds
    • 5.6b. Cloud Identification
    • 5.6c. Some Unusual Clouds
    • 5.6d. Cloud Observations
    • 5.6e. Satellite Observations
  • Summary
  • Key Terms
  • Questions for Review
  • Questions for Thought
  • Problems and Exercises
• Chapter 6. Stability and Cloud Development
  • 6.1. Atmospheric Stability
  • 6.2. Determining Stability
    • 6.2a. A Stable Atmosphere
    • 6.2b. An Unstable Atmosphere
    • 6.2c. A Conditionally Unstable Atmosphere
    • 6.2d. Causes of Instability
  • 6.3. Cloud Development
    • 6.3a. Convection and Clouds
    • 6.3b. Topography and Clouds
    • 6.3c. Clouds that form Downwind of Mountains
    • 6.3d. Changing Cloud Forms
  • Summary
  • Key Terms
  • Questions for Review
  • Questions for Thought
  • Problems and Exercises
• Chapter 7. Precipitation
  • 7.1. Precipitation Processes
    • 7.1a. How Do Cloud Droplets Grow Larger?
    • 7.1b. Collision and Coalescence Process
    • 7.1c. Ice-Crystal (Wegener-Bergeron-Findeisen) Process
    • 7.1d. Cloud Seeding and Precipitation
    • 7.1e. Precipitation in Clouds
  • 7.2. Precipitation Types
    • 7.2a. Rain
    • 7.2b. Snow
    • 7.2c. Snowflakes and Snowfall
    • 7.2d. A Blanket of Snow
    • 7.2e. Sleet and Freezing Rain
    • 7.2f. Snow Grains and Snow Pellets
    • 7.2g. Hail
  • 7.3. Measuring Precipitation
    • 7.3a. Instruments
    • 7.3b. Doppler Radar and Precipitation
    • 7.3c. Measuring Precipitation from Space
  • Summary
  • Key Terms
  • Questions for Review
  • Questions for Thought
  • Problems and Exercises
• Chapter 8. Air Pressure and Winds
  • 8.1. Atmospheric Pressure
    • 8.1a. Horizontal Pressure Variations: A Tale of Two Cities
    • 8.1b. Daily Pressure Variations
    • 8.1c. Pressure Measurements
    • 8.1d. Pressure Readings
  • 8.2. Surface and Upper-Level Charts
  • 8.3. Newton’s Laws of Motion
  • 8.4. Forces That Influence the Winds
    • 8.4a. Pressure-Gradient Force
    • 8.4b. Coriolis Force
    • 8.4c. Straight-Line Flow Aloft—Geostrophic Winds
    • 8.4d. Curved Winds Around Lows and Highs Aloft—Gradient Winds
    • 8.4e. Winds on Upper-Level Charts
    • 8.4f. Surface Winds
  • 8.5. Winds and Vertical Air Motions
  • Summary
  • Key Terms
  • Questions for Review
  • Questions for Thought
  • Problems and Exercises
• Chapter 9. Wind: Small-Scale and Local Systems
  • 9.1. Scales of Atmospheric Motion
  • 9.2. Small-Scale Winds Interacting with the Environment
    • 9.2a. Friction and Turbulence in the Boundary Layer
    • 9.2b. Eddies—Big and Small
    • 9.2c. The Strong Force of the Wind
    • 9.2d. Wind and Soil
    • 9.2e. Wind and Snow
    • 9.2f. Wind and Vegetation
    • 9.2g. Wind and Water
  • 9.3. Local Wind Systems
    • 9.3a. Thermal Circulations
    • 9.3b. Sea and Land Breezes
    • 9.3c. Mountain and Valley Breezes
    • 9.3d. Katabatic Winds
    • 9.3e. Chinook (FOEHN) Winds
    • 9.3f. Santa Ana Winds
    • 9.3g. Desert Winds
    • 9.3h. Seasonally Changing Winds—The Monsoon
  • 9.4. Determining Wind Direction and Speed
    • 9.4a. The Influence of Prevailing Winds
    • 9.4b. Wind Measurements
  • Summary
  • Key Terms
  • Questions for Review
  • Questions for Thought
  • Problems and Exercises
• Chapter 10. Wind: Global Systems
  • 10.1. General Circulation of the Atmosphere
    • 10.1a. Single-Cell Model
    • 10.1b. Three-Cell Model
    • 10.1c. Average Surface Winds and Pressure: The Real World
    • 10.1d. The General Circulation and Precipitation Patterns
    • 10.1e. Average Wind Flow and Pressure Patterns Aloft
  • 10.2. Jet Streams
    • 10.2a. The Formation of Jet Streams
    • 10.2b. Other Jet Streams
  • 10.3. Atmosphere-Ocean Interactions
    • 10.3a. Global Wind Patterns and Surface Ocean Currents
    • 10.3b. Upwelling
    • 10.3c. El Niño, La Niña, and the Southern Oscillation
    • 10.3d. Effects of El Niño and La Niña
    • 10.3e. Pacific Decadal Oscillation
    • 10.3f. Indian Ocean Dipole
    • 10.3g. North Atlantic Oscillation and Arctic Oscillation
  • Summary
  • Key Terms
  • Questions for Review
  • Questions for Thought
  • Problems and Exercises
• Chapter 11. Air Masses and Fronts
  • 11.1. Air Masses
    • 11.1a. Source Regions
    • 11.1b. Classification
    • 11.1c. Air Masses of North America
  • 11.2. Fronts
    • 11.2a. Stationary Fronts
    • 11.2b. Cold Fronts
    • 11.2c. Warm Fronts
    • 11.2d. Drylines
    • 11.2e. Occluded Fronts
    • 11.2f. Upper-Air Fronts
  • Summary
  • Key Terms
  • Questions for Review
  • Questions for Thought
  • Problems and Exercises
• Chapter 12. Middle-Latitude Cyclones
  • 12.1. Polar Front Theory
  • 12.2. Where Do Mid-latitude Cyclones Tend to Form?
  • 12.3. Vertical Structure of Deep Dynamic Lows
    • 12.3a. The Roles of Converging and Diverging Air
  • 12.4. Upper-Level Waves and Mid-Latitude Cyclones
  • 12.5. The Necessary Ingredients for a Developing Mid-Latitude Cyclone
    • 12.5a. Upper-Air Support
    • 12.5b. The Role of the Jet Stream
    • 12.5c. Conveyor Belt Model of Mid-Latitude Cyclones
    • 2.5d. A Developing Mid-Latitude Cyclone—The March Storm of 1993
  • 12.6. Vorticity, Divergence, and Developing Mid-latitude Cyclones
    • 12.6a. Vorticity on a Spinning Planet
    • 12.6b. Vorticity Advection and Shortwaves
    • 12.6c. Putting it all Together—A Massive Snowstorm
    • 12.6d. Polar Lows
  • Summary
  • Key Terms
  • Questions for Review
  • Questions for Thought
  • Problems and Exercises
• Chapter 13. Weather Forecasting
  • 13.1. Weather Observations
    • 13.1a. Surface and Upper-Air Data
    • 13.1b. Satellite Products
    • 13.1c. Doppler Radar
  • 13.2. Acquisition of Weather Information
  • 13.3. Weather Analysis Tools
  • 13.4. Weather Forecasting Methods
    • 13.4a. The Computer and Weather Forecasting: Numerical Weather Prediction
    • 13.4b. Why Computer-Based Forecasts Can Go Awry and Steps to Improve Them
    • 13.4c. Other Forecasting Techniques
  • 13.5. Time Range of Forecasts
  • 13.6. Accuracy and Skill in Weather Forecasting
  • 13.7. Weather Forecasting Using Surface Charts
    • 13.7a. Determining the Movement of Weather Systems
    • 13.7b. A Forecast for Six Cities
  • 13.8. Using Forecasting Tools to Predict the Weather
    • 13.8a. Help from the 500-Mb Chart
    • 13.8b. The Models Provide Assistance
    • 13.8c. A Valid Forecast
    • 13.8d. Satellite and Upper-Air Assistance
    • 13.8e. A Day of Rain and Wind
  • Summary
  • Key Terms
  • Questions for Review
  • Questions for Thought
  • Problems and Exercises
• Chapter 14. Thunderstorms
  • 14.1. Thunderstorm Types
    • 14.1a. Ordinary Cell Thunderstorms
    • 14.1b. Multicell Thunderstorms
    • 14.1c. Supercell Thunderstorms
    • 14.1d. Thunderstorms and the Dryline
    • 14.1e. Pyrocumulonimbus
  • 14.2. Thunderstorms and Flooding
  • 14.3. Distribution of Thunderstorms
  • 14.4. Lightning and Thunder
    • 14.4a. How Far Away is the Lightning? Start Counting
    • 14.4b. Electrification of Clouds
    • 14.4c. Lightning Types
    • 14.4d. Lightning Detection and Suppression
  • Summary
  • Key Terms
  • Questions for Review
  • Questions for Thought
  • Problems and Exercises
• Chapter 15. Tornadoes
  • 15.1. Tornadoes: A Few Facts
    • 15.1a. Tornado Life Cycle
    • 15.1b. Tornado Occurrence and Distribution
    • 15.1c. Tornado Winds
    • 15.1d. Tornado Outbreaks
  • 15.2. Tornado Formation
    • 15.2a. Supercell Tornadoes
    • 15.2b. Nonsupercell Tornadoes
    • 15.2c. Waterspouts
  • 15.3. Observing Tornadoes and Severe Weather
  • 15.4. Storm Chasing and Mobile Radar
  • Summary
  • Key Terms
  • Questions for Review
  • Questions for Thought
  • Problems and Exercises
• Chapter 16. Hurricanes
  • 16.1. Tropical Weather
  • 16.2. Hurricanes, Tropical Storms, and Tropical Cyclones
  • 16.3. Anatomy of a Hurricane
  • 16.4. Hurricane Formation and Dissipation
    • 16.4a. The Right Environment
    • 16.4b. The Developing Storm
    • 16.4c. The Storm Dies Out
    • 16.4d. Investigating the Storm
  • 16.5. Hurricane Movement
    • Eastern Pacific Hurricanes
    • 16.5a. Naming Hurricanes and Tropical Storms
  • 16.6. Devastating Winds, the Storm Surge, and Flooding
    • 16.6a. Classifying Hurricane Strength
    • 16.6b. Hurricane-Spawned Tornadoes
    • 16.6c. Hurricane Fatalities
  • 16.7. Some Notable Hurricanes
    • 16.7a. Galveston, 1900
    • 16.7b. New England, 1938
    • 16.7c. Camille, 1969
    • 16.7d. Andrew, 1992
    • 16.7e. Katrina and Rita, 2005
    • 16.7f. Sandy, 2012
    • 16.7g. Michael, 2018
    • 16.7h. Dorian, 2019
  • 16.8. Destructive Tropical Cyclones Around the World
  • 16.9. Hurricane Watches and Warnings
  • 16.10. Hurricane Forecasting Techniques
  • 16.11. Modifying Hurricanes
  • Summary
  • Key Terms
  • Questions for Review
  • Questions for Thought
  • Problems and Exercises
• Chapter 17. Global Climate
  • 17.1. A World with Many Climates
    • 17.1a. Global Temperatures
    • 17.1b. Global Precipitation
  • 17.2. Climatic Classification
    • 17.2a. The Ancient Greeks
    • 17.2b. The Köppen System
    • 17.2c. Thornthwaite’s System
  • 17.3. The Global Pattern of Climate
    • 17.3a. Tropical Moist Climates (Group A)
    • 17.3b. Dry Climates (Group B)
    • 17.3c. Moist Subtropical Mid-Latitude Climates (Group C)
    • 17.3d. Moist Continental Climates (Group D)
    • 17.3e. Polar Climates (Group E)
    • 17.3f. Highland Climates (Group H)
  • Summary
  • Key Terms
  • Questions for Review
  • Questions for Thought
  • Problems and Exercises
• Chapter 18. Earth’s Changing Climate
  • 18.1. Reconstructing Past Climates
  • 18.2. Climate Throughout the Ages
    • 18.2a. Temperature Trends During the past 1000 Years
    • 18.2b. Temperature Trends During the past 100-Plus Years
  • 18.3. Climate Change Caused by Natural Events
    • 18.3a. Feedback Mechanisms
    • 18.3b. Plate Tectonics and Mountain Building
    • 18.3c. Variations in Earth’s Orbit
    • 18.3d. Variations in Solar Output
    • 18.3e. Atmospheric Particles
  • 18.4. Climate Change Caused by Human (Anthropogenic) Activities
    • 18.4a. Greenhouse Gases
    • 18.4b. Aerosols Injected into the Lower Atmosphere
    • 18.4c. Land Use Changes
  • 18.5. Global Warming and Related Changes
    • 18.5a. Recent Global Warming: Perspective
    • 18.5b. Projections of Future Climate Change
    • 18.5c. Patterns and Consequences of Climate Change
  • 18.6. Mitigating and Adapting to Climate Change
    • Diplomatic Efforts
  • Summary
  • Key Terms
  • Questions for Review
  • Questions for Thought
  • Problems and Exercises
• Chapter 19. Air Pollution
  • 19.1. A Brief History of Air Pollution
  • 19.2. Types and Sources of Air Pollutants
    • 19.2a. Primary Air Pollutants
    • 19.2b. Ozone in the Troposphere
    • 19.2c. Ozone in the Stratosphere
    • 19.2d. Air Pollution: Trends and Patterns
  • 19.3. Factors That Affect Air Pollution
    • 19.3a. The Role of the Wind
    • 19.3b. The Role of Stability and Inversions
    • 19.3c. The Role of Topography
    • 19.3d. Severe Air Pollution Potential
  • 19.4. Air Pollution and the Urban Environment
  • 19.5. Acid Deposition
  • Summary
  • Key Terms
  • Questions for Review
  • Questions for Thought
  • Problems and Exercises
• Chapter 20. Light, Color, and Atmospheric Optics
  • 20.1. White and Colors
  • 20.2. Clouds and Scattered Light
    • 20.2a. Blue Skies and Hazy Days
    • 20.2b. White Clouds and Dark Bases
    • 20.2c. Crepuscular and Anticrepuscular Rays
  • 20.3. Red Suns and Blue Moons
  • 20.4. Twinkling, Twilight, and the Green Flash
  • 20.5. The Mirage: Seeing Is Not Believing
  • 20.6. Halos, Sundogs, and Sun Pillars
  • 20.7. Rainbows
  • 20.8. Coronas, Glories, and Heiligenschein
  • Summary
  • Key Terms
  • Questions for Review
  • Questions for Thought
  • Problems and Exercises
• Appendix A. Units, Conversions, Abbreviations, and Equations
• Appendix B. Weather Symbols and the Station Model
• Appendix C. Humidity and Dew-Point Tables (Psychrometric Tables)
• Appendix D. Average Annual Global Precipitation
• Appendix E. Instant Weather Forecast Chart
• Appendix F. Changing GMT and UTC to Local Time
• Appendix G. Standard Atmosphere
• Appendix H. Adiabatic Chart
• Additional Reading Material

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