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For one-semester courses in Preparatory Chemistry Builds 21st century and problem solving skills, preparing students for success Now in its 6th Edition, the best-selling Introductory Chemistry continues to encourage student interest by showing how chemistry manifests in students’ daily lives. Author Nivaldo Tro draws upon his classroom experience as an award-winning instructor to extend chemistry from the laboratory to the student’s world, capturing student attention with relevant applications and an engaging writing style.
The text provides a superior teaching and learning experience, enabling deep conceptual understanding, fostering the development of problem-solving skills, and encouraging interest in chemistry with concrete examples. Extending chemistry from the lab to the student’s world, the text reveals that anyone can master chemistry. Refined to meet its purpose of teaching relevant skills, the 6th Edition includes new questions, data, and sections to help students build the 21st century skills necessary to succeed in introductory chemistry and beyond.
Already a visual text, in this edition the art has been further refined and improved, making the visual impact sharper and more targeted to student learning. The new edition also includes new Conceptual Checkpoints, a widely embraced feature that emphasises understanding rather than calculation, as well as a new category of end-of-chapter questions called Data Interpretation and Analysis, which present real data in real life situations and ask students to analyse and interpret that data.
The full text downloaded to your computer With eBooks you can: search for key concepts, words and phrases make highlights and notes as you study share your notes with friends eBooks are downloaded to your computer and accessible either offline through the Bookshelf (available as a free download), available online and also via the iPad and Android apps. Upon purchase, you'll gain instant access to this eBook.
Annað
- Höfundur: Nivaldo J. Tro
- Útgáfa:6
- Útgáfudagur: 2018-08-07
- Hægt að prenta út 2 bls.
- Hægt að afrita 2 bls.
- Format:Page Fidelity
- ISBN 13: 9781292229782
- Print ISBN: 9781292229683
- ISBN 10: 1292229780
Efnisyfirlit
- Title Page
- Copyright Page
- Contents
- Preface
- 1 The Chemical World
- 1.1 Sand and Water
- 1.2 Chemicals Compose Ordinary Things
- 1.3 The Scientific Method: How Chemists Think
- EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY: Combustion and the Scientific Method
- 1.4 Analyzing and Interpreting Data
- Identifying Patterns in Data
- Interpreting Graphs
- 1.5 A Beginning Chemist: How to Succeed
- Self-Assessment Quiz
- Key Terms
- Exercises
- Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises
- Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints
- 2 Measurement and Problem Solving
- 2.1 The Metric Mix-up: A $125 Million Unit Error
- 2.2 Scientific Notation: Writing Large and Small Numbers
- 2.3 Significant Figures: Writing Numbers to Reflect Precision
- Counting Significant Figures
- Exact Numbers
- CHEMISTRY IN THE MEDIA: The COBE Satellite and Very Precise Measurements That Illuminate Our Cosmic
- 2.4 Significant Figures in Calculations
- Multiplication and Division
- Rounding
- Addition and Subtraction
- Calculations Involving Both Multiplication/Division and Addition/Subtraction
- 2.5 The Basic Units of Measurement
- The Base Units
- Prefix Multipliers
- Derived Units
- 2.6 Problem Solving and Unit Conversion
- Converting Between Units
- General Problem-Solving Strategy
- 2.7 Solving Multistep Unit Conversion Problems
- 2.8 Unit Conversion in Both the Numerator and Denominator
- 2.9 Units Raised to a Power
- CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH: Drug Dosage
- 2.10 Density
- Calculating Density
- Density as a Conversion Factor
- CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH: Density, Cholesterol, and Heart Disease
- 2.11 Numerical Problem-Solving Strategies and the Solution Map
- Self-Assessment Quiz
- Key Terms
- Exercises
- Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises
- Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints
- 3 Matter and Energy
- 3.1 In Your Room
- 3.2 What Is Matter?
- 3.3 Classifying Matter According to Its State: Solid, Liquid, and Gas
- 3.4 Classifying Matter According to Its Composition: Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures
- 3.5 Differences in Matter: Physical and Chemical Properties
- 3.6 Changes in Matter: Physical and Chemical Changes
- Separating Mixtures Through Physical Changes
- 3.7 Conservation of Mass: There Is No New Matter
- 3.8 Energy
- CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT: Getting Energy out of Nothing?
- Units of Energy
- 3.9 Energy and Chemical and Physical Change
- 3.10 Temperature: Random Motion of Molecules and Atoms
- 3.11 Temperature Changes: Heat Capacity
- EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY: Coolers, Camping, and the Heat Capacity of Water
- 3.12 Energy and Heat Capacity Calculations
- Self-Assessment Quiz
- Key Terms
- Exercises
- Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises
- Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints
- 4 Atoms and Elements
- 4.1 Experiencing Atoms at Tiburon
- 4.2 Indivisible: The Atomic Theory
- 4.3 The Nuclear Atom
- 4.4 The Properties of Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons
- EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY: Solid Matter?
- 4.5 Elements: Defined by Their Numbers of Protons
- 4.6 Looking for Patterns: The Periodic Law and the Periodic Table
- 4.7 Ions: Losing and Gaining Electrons
- Ions and the Periodic Table
- 4.8 Isotopes: When the Number of Neutrons Varies
- 4.9 Atomic Mass: The Average Mass of an Element’s Atoms
- CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT: Radioactive Isotopes at Hanford, Washington
- Self-Assessment Quiz
- Key Terms
- Exercises
- Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises
- Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints
- 5 Molecules and Compounds
- 5.1 Sugar and Salt
- 5.2 Compounds Display Constant Composition
- 5.3 Chemical Formulas: How to Represent Compounds
- Polyatomic Ions in Chemical Formulas
- Types of Chemical Formulas
- 5.4 A Molecular View of Elements and Compounds
- Atomic Elements
- Molecular Elements
- Molecular Compounds
- Ionic Compounds
- 5.5 Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds
- Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds Containing Only Monoatomic Ions
- Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions
- 5.6 Nomenclature: Naming Compounds
- 5.7 Naming Ionic Compounds
- Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal That Forms Only One Type of Cation
- Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal That Forms More Than One Type of Cation
- Naming Ionic Compounds Containing a Polyatomic Ion
- EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY: Polyatomic Ions
- 5.8 Naming Molecular Compounds
- 5.9 Naming Acids
- Naming Binary Acids
- Naming Oxyacids
- 5.10 Nomenclature Summary
- Ionic Compounds
- Molecular Compounds
- Acids
- 5.11 Formula Mass: The Mass of a Molecule or Formula Unit
- Self-Assessment Quiz
- Key Terms
- Exercises
- Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises
- Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints
- 6 Chemical Composition
- 6.1 How Much Sodium?
- 6.2 Counting Nails by the Kilogram
- 6.3 Counting Atoms by the Gram
- Converting between Moles and Number of Atoms
- Converting between Grams and Moles of an Element
- Converting between Grams of an Element and Number of Atoms
- 6.4 Counting Molecules by the Gram
- Converting between Grams and Moles of a Compound
- Converting between Grams of a Compound and Number of Molecules
- 6.5 Chemical Formulas as Conversion Factors
- Converting between Moles of a Compound and Moles of a Constituent Element
- Converting between Grams of a Compound and Grams of a Constituent Element
- 6.6 Mass Percent Composition of Compounds
- 6.7 Mass Percent Composition from a Chemical Formula
- CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH: Fluoridation of Drinking Water
- 6.8 Calculating Empirical Formulas for Compounds
- Calculating an Empirical Formula from Experimental Data
- 6.9 Calculating Molecular Formulas for Compounds
- Self-Assessment Quiz
- Key Terms
- Exercises
- Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises
- Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints
- 7 Chemical Reactions
- 7.1 Grade School Volcanoes, Automobiles, and Laundry Detergents
- 7.2 Evidence of a Chemical Reaction
- 7.3 The Chemical Equation
- 7.4 How to Write Balanced Chemical Equations
- 7.5 Aqueous Solutions and Solubility: Compounds Dissolved in Water
- Aqueous Solutions
- Solubility
- 7.6 Precipitation Reactions: Reactions in Aqueous Solution That Form a Solid
- 7.7 Writing Chemical Equations for Reactions in Solution: Molecular, Complete Ionic, and Net Ionic E
- 7.8 Acid–Base and Gas Evolution Reactions
- Acid–Base (Neutralization) Reactions
- Gas Evolution Reactions
- CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH: Neutralizing Excess Stomach Acid
- 7.9 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions
- 7.10 Classifying Chemical Reactions
- Classifying Chemical Reactions by What Atoms Do
- Classification Flowchart
- Self-Assessment Quiz
- Key Terms
- Exercises
- Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises
- Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints
- 8 Quantities in Chemical Reactions
- 8.1 Climate Change: Too Much Carbon Dioxide
- 8.2 Making Pancakes: Relationships between Ingredients
- 8.3 Making Molecules: Mole-to-Mole Conversions
- 8.4 Making Molecules: Mass-to-Mass Conversions
- 8.5 More Pancakes: Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield
- 8.6 Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield from Initial Masses of Reactants
- 8.7 Enthalpy: A Measure of the Heat Evolved or Absorbed in a Reaction
- Sign of ΔH[sub(rxn)]
- EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY: Bunsen Burners
- Stoichiometry of ΔH[sub(rxn)]
- Self-Assessment Quiz
- Key Terms
- Exercises
- Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises
- Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints
- 9 Electrons in Atoms and the Periodic Table
- 9.1 Blimps, Balloons, and Models of the Atom
- 9.2 Light: Electromagnetic Radiation
- 9.3 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
- CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH: Radiation Treatment for Cancer
- 9.4 The Bohr Model: Atoms with Orbits
- 9.5 The Quantum-Mechanical Model: Atoms with Orbitals
- Baseball Paths and Electron Probability Maps
- From Orbits to Orbitals
- 9.6 Quantum-Mechanical Orbitals and Electron Configurations
- Quantum-Mechanical Orbitals
- Electron Configurations: How Electrons Occupy Orbitals
- 9.7 Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table
- 9.8 The Explanatory Power of the Quantum-Mechanical Model
- 9.9 Periodic Trends: Atomic Size, Ionization Energy, and Metallic Character
- Atomic Size
- CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH: Pumping Ions: Atomic Size and Nerve Impulses
- Ionization Energy
- Metallic Character
- Self-Assessment Quiz
- Key Terms
- Exercises
- Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises
- Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints
- 10 Chemical Bonding
- 10.1 Bonding Models and AIDS Drugs
- 10.2 Representing Valence Electrons with Dots
- 10.3 Lewis Structures of Ionic Compounds: Electrons Transferred
- 10.4 Covalent Lewis Structures: Electrons Shared
- Single Bonds
- Double and Triple Bonds
- 10.5 Writing Lewis Structures for Covalent Compounds
- Writing Lewis Structures for Polyatomic Ions
- Exceptions to the Octet Rule
- 10.6 Resonance: Equivalent Lewis Structures for the Same Molecule
- 10.7 Predicting the Shapes of Molecules
- Representing Molecular Geometries on Paper
- CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH: Fooled by Molecular Shape
- 10.8 Electronegativity and Polarity: Why Oil and Water Don’t Mix
- Electronegativity
- Polar Bonds and Polar Molecules
- EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY: How Soap Works
- Self-Assessment Quiz
- Key Terms
- Exercises
- Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises
- Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints
- 11 Gases
- 11.1 Extra-Long Straws
- 11.2 Kinetic Molecular Theory: A Model for Gases
- 11.3 Pressure: The Result of Constant Molecular Collisions
- Pressure Units
- Pressure Unit Conversion
- 11.4 Boyle’s Law: Pressure and Volume
- EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY: Airplane Cabin Pressurization
- EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY: Extra-long Snorkels
- 11.5 Charles’s Law: Volume and Temperature
- 11.6 The Combined Gas Law: Pressure, Volume, and Temperature
- 11.7 Avogadro’s Law: Volume and Moles
- 11.8 The Ideal Gas Law: Pressure, Volume, Temperature, and Moles
- Determining Molar Mass of a Gas from the Ideal Gas Law
- Ideal and Nonideal Gas Behavior
- 11.9 Mixtures of Gases
- Partial Pressure and Physiology
- Collecting Gases over Water
- 11.10 Gases in Chemical Reactions
- Molar Volume at Standard Temperature and Pressure
- CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT: Air Pollution
- Self-Assessment Quiz
- Key Terms
- Exercises
- Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises
- Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints
- 12 Liquids, Solids, and Intermolecular Forces
- 12.1 Spherical Water
- 12.2 Properties of Liquids and Solids
- 12.3 Intermolecular Forces in Action: Surface Tension and Viscosity
- Surface Tension
- Viscosity
- 12.4 Evaporation and Condensation
- Boiling
- Energetics of Evaporation and Condensation
- Heat of Vaporization
- 12.5 Melting, Freezing, and Sublimation
- Energetics of Melting and Freezing
- Heat of Fusion
- Sublimation
- 12.6 Types of Intermolecular Forces: Dispersion, Dipole–Dipole, Hydrogen Bonding, and Ion–Dipole
- Dispersion Force
- Dipole–Dipole Force
- Hydrogen Bonding
- Ion–Dipole Force
- CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH: Hydrogen Bonding in DNA
- 12.7 Types of Crystalline Solids: Molecular, Ionic, and Atomic
- Molecular Solids
- Ionic Solids
- Atomic Solids
- 12.8 Water: A Remarkable Molecule
- CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT: Water Pollution and the Flint River Water Crisis
- Self-Assessment Quiz
- Key Terms
- Exercises
- Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises
- Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints
- 13 Solutions
- 13.1 Tragedy in Cameroon
- 13.2 Solutions: Homogeneous Mixtures
- 13.3 Solutions of Solids Dissolved in Water: How to Make Rock Candy
- Solubility and Saturation
- Electrolyte Solutions: Dissolved Ionic Solids
- How Solubility Varies with Temperature
- 13.4 Solutions of Gases in Water: How Soda Pop Gets Its Fizz
- 13.5 Specifying Solution Concentration: Mass Percent
- Mass Percent
- Using Mass Percent in Calculations
- 13.6 Specifying Solution Concentration: Molarity
- Using Molarity in Calculations
- Ion Concentrations
- 13.7 Solution Dilution
- 13.8 Solution Stoichiometry
- 13.9 Freezing Point Depression and Boiling Point Elevation: Making Water Freeze Colder and Boil Hott
- Freezing Point Depression
- EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY: Antifreeze in Frogs
- Boiling Point Elevation
- 13.10 Osmosis: Why Drinking Saltwater Causes Dehydration
- CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH: Solutions in Medicine
- Self-Assessment Quiz
- Key Terms
- Exercises
- Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises
- Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints
- 14 Acids and Bases
- 14.1 Sour Patch Kids and International Spy Movies
- 14.2 Acids: Properties and Examples
- 14.3 Bases: Properties and Examples
- 14.4 Molecular Definitions of Acids and Bases
- The Arrhenius Definition
- The Brønsted–Lowry Definition
- 14.5 Reactions of Acids and Bases
- Neutralization Reactions
- Acid Reactions
- EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY: What Is in My Antacid?
- Base Reactions
- 14.6 Acid–Base Titration: A Way to Quantify the Amount of Acid or Base in a Solution
- 14.7 Strong and Weak Acids and Bases
- Strong Acids
- Weak Acids
- Strong Bases
- Weak Bases
- 14.8 Water: Acid and Base in One
- 14.9 The pH and pOH Scales: Ways to Express Acidity and Basicity
- Calculating pH from [H[sub(3)]O[sup(+)]]
- Calculating [H[sub(3)]O[sup(+)]] from pH
- The pOH Scale
- 14.10 Buffers: Solutions That Resist pH Change
- CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH: Alkaloids
- CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH: The Danger of Antifreeze
- Self-Assessment Quiz
- Key Terms
- Exercises
- Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises
- Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints
- 15 Chemical Equilibrium
- 15.1 Life: Controlled Disequilibrium
- 15.2 The Rate of a Chemical Reaction
- Collision Theory
- How Concentration Affects the Rate of a Reaction
- How Temperature Affects the Rate of a Reaction
- 15.3 The Idea of Dynamic Chemical Equilibrium
- 15.4 The Equilibrium Constant: A Measure of How Far a Reaction Goes
- Writing Equilibrium Constant Expressions for Chemical Reactions
- The Significance of the Equilibrium Constant
- 15.5 Heterogeneous Equilibria: The Equilibrium Expression for Reactions Involving a Solid or a Liqui
- 15.6 Calculating and Using Equilibrium Constants
- Calculating Equilibrium Constants
- Using Equilibrium Constants in Calculations
- 15.7 Disturbing a Reaction at Equilibrium: Le Châtelier’s Principle
- 15.8 The Effect of a Concentration Change on Equilibrium
- 15.9 The Effect of a Volume Change on Equilibrium
- CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH: How a Developing Fetus Gets Oxygen from Its Mother
- 15.10 The Effect of a Temperature Change on Equilibrium
- 15.11 The Solubility-Product Constant
- Using K[sub(sp)] to Determine Molar Solubility
- 15.12 The Path of a Reaction and the Effect of a Catalyst
- How Activation Energies Affect Reaction Rates
- Catalysts Lower the Activation Energy
- Enzymes: Biological Catalysts
- Self-Assessment Quiz
- Key Terms
- Exercises
- Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises
- Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints
- 16 Oxidation and Reduction
- 16.1 The End of the Internal Combustion Engine?
- 16.2 Oxidation and Reduction: Some Definitions
- 16.3 Oxidation States: Electron Bookkeeping
- EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY: The Bleaching of Hair
- 16.4 Balancing Redox Equations
- CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT: Photosynthesis and Respiration: Energy for Life
- 16.5 The Activity Series: Predicting Spontaneous Redox Reactions
- The Activity Series of Metals
- Predicting Whether a Metal Will Dissolve in Acid
- 16.6 Batteries: Using Chemistry to Generate Electricity
- Dry-Cell Batteries
- Lead-Acid Storage Batteries
- Fuel Cells
- 16.7 Electrolysis: Using Electricity to Do Chemistry
- 16.8 Corrosion: Undesirable Redox Reactions
- EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY: The Fuel-Cell Breathalyzer
- Self-Assessment Quiz
- Key Terms
- Exercises
- Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises
- Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints
- 17 Radioactivity and Nuclear Chemistry
- 17.1 Diagnosing Appendicitis
- 17.2 The Discovery of Radioactivity
- 17.3 Types of Radioactivity: Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Decay
- Alpha (α) Radiation
- Beta (β) Radiation
- Gamma (γ) Radiation
- Positron Emission
- 17.4 Detecting Radioactivity
- 17.5 Natural Radioactivity and Half-Life
- Half-Life
- CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH: Environmental Radon
- A Natural Radioactive Decay Series
- 17.6 Radiocarbon Dating: Using Radioactivity to Measure the Age of Fossils and Other Artifacts
- CHEMISTRY IN THE MEDIA: The Shroud of Turin
- 17.7 The Discovery of Fission and the Atomic Bomb
- 17.8 Nuclear Power: Using Fission to Generate Electricity
- 17.9 Nuclear Fusion: The Power of the Sun
- 17.10 The Effects of Radiation on Life
- Acute Radiation Damage
- Increased Cancer Risk
- Genetic Defects
- Measuring Radiation Exposure
- 17.11 Radioactivity in Medicine
- Isotope Scanning
- Radiotherapy
- Self-Assessment Quiz
- Key Terms
- Exercises
- Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises
- Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints
- 18 Organic Chemistry
- 18.1 What Do I Smell?
- 18.2 Vitalism: The Difference between Organic and Inorganic
- 18.3 Carbon: A Versatile Atom
- CHEMISTRY IN THE MEDIA: The Origin of Life
- 18.4 Hydrocarbons: Compounds Containing Only Carbon and Hydrogen
- 18.5 Alkanes: Saturated Hydrocarbons
- CHEMISTRY IN THE MEDIA: Environmental Problems Associated with Hydrocarbon Combustion
- 18.6 Isomers: Same Formula, Different Structure
- 18.7 Naming Alkanes
- 18.8 Alkenes and Alkynes
- About Alkenes and Alkynes
- Naming Alkenes and Alkynes
- 18.9 Hydrocarbon Reactions
- Alkane Substitution Reactions
- Alkene and Alkyne Addition Reactions
- 18.10 Aromatic Hydrocarbons
- Naming Aromatic Hydrocarbons
- 18.11 Functional Groups
- 18.12 Alcohols
- Naming Alcohols
- About Alcohols
- 18.13 Ethers
- Naming Ethers
- About Ethers
- 18.14 Aldehydes and Ketones
- Naming Aldehydes and Ketones
- About Aldehydes and Ketones
- 18.15 Carboxylic Acids and Esters
- Naming Carboxylic Acids and Esters
- About Carboxylic Acids and Esters
- 18.16 Amines
- 18.17 Polymers
- EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY: Kevlar: Stronger Than Steel
- Self-Assessment Quiz
- Key Terms
- Exercises
- Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises
- Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints
- 19 Biochemistry
- 19.1 The Human Genome Project
- 19.2 The Cell and Its Main Chemical Components
- 19.3 Carbohydrates: Sugar, Starch, and Fiber
- Monosaccharides
- Disaccharides
- Polysaccharides
- 19.4 Lipids
- Fatty Acids
- Fats and Oils
- Other Lipids
- CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH: Dietary Fats
- 19.5 Proteins
- 19.6 Protein Structure
- Primary Structure
- Secondary Structure
- EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY: Why Hair Gets Longer When It Is Wet
- Tertiary Structure
- Quaternary Structure
- 19.7 Nucleic Acids: Molecular Blueprints
- 19.8 DNA Structure, DNA Replication, and Protein Synthesis
- DNA Structure
- DNA Replication
- Protein Synthesis
- CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH: Drugs for Diabetes
- Self-Assessment Quiz
- Key Terms
- Exercises
- Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises
- Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints
- Appendix: Mathematics Review
- Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises
- Glossary
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E
- F
- G
- H
- I
- K
- L
- M
- N
- O
- P
- Q
- R
- S
- T
- U
- V
- W
- X
- Credits
- Index
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E
- F
- G
- H
- I
- J
- K
- L
- M
- N
- O
- P
- Q
- R
- S
- T
- U
- V
- W
- X
- Y
- Z
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