Efnisyfirlit

• Cover
• Title
• Copyright
• About the Authors
• Dedication
• Brief Contents
• Contents
• Preface
• Chapter 1 Introduction to Ecology: Historical Foundations and Developing Frontiers
  • Concepts
  • 1.1 Overview of Ecology
    • Concept 1.1 Review
  • 1.2 Sampling Ecological Research
    • Climatic and Ecological Change: Past and Future
    • Concept 1.2 Review
  • Applications: Ecology Can Inform Environmental Law and Policy
• Section I: Natural History And Evolution
  • Chapter 2 Life on Land
    • Concepts
    • Terrestrial Biomes and the Importance of Plants
    • 2.1 Large-Scale Patterns of Climatic Variation
      • Temperature, Atmospheric Circulation, and Precipitation
      • Climate Diagrams
      • Concept 2.1 Review
    • 2.2 Other Factors That Shape Terrestrial Biomes
      • Concept 2.2 Review
    • 2.3 Natural History and Geography of Biomes
      • Tropical Rain Forest
      • Tropical Dry Forest
      • Tropical Savanna
      • Desert
      • Woodland and Shrubland
      • Temperate Grassland
      • Temperate Forest
      • Boreal Forest
      • Tundra
      • Mountains: A Diversity of Biomes
      • Concept 2.3 Review
    • Applications: Finer Scale Climatic Variation over Time and Space
  • Chapter 3 Life in Water
    • Concepts
    • Aquatic Biomes and How They Differ
    • 3.1 Water Cycling
      • The Hydrologic Cycle
      • The Effects of Wind and Temperature
      • Concept 3.1 Review
    • 3.2 The Natural History of Aquatic Environments
      • The Oceans
      • Life in Shallow Marine Waters: Kelp Forests and Coral Gardens
      • Marine Shores: Life Between High and Low Tides
      • Transitional Environments: Estuaries, Salt Marshes, Mangrove Forests, and Freshwater Wetlands
      • Rivers and Streams: Life Blood and Pulse of the Land
      • Lakes: Small Seas
      • Concept 3.2 Review
    • Applications: Biological Integrity—Assessing the Health of Aquatic Systems
    • Number of Species and Species Composition
    • Trophic Composition
    • Fish Abundance and Condition
    • A Test
  • Chapter 4 Population Genetics and Natural Selection
    • Concepts
    • 4.1 Variation Within Populations
      • Variation in a Widely Distributed Plant
      • Variation in Alpine Fish Populations
      • Concept 4.1 Review
    • 4.2 Hardy-Weinberg Principle
      • Calculating Gene Frequencies
      • Concept 4.2 Review
    • 4.3 The Process of Natural Selection
      • Stabilizing Selection
      • Directional Selection
      • Disruptive Selection
      • Concept 4.3 Review
    • 4.4 Evolution by Natural Selection
      • Heritability: Essential for Evolution
      • Directional Selection: Adaptation by Soapberry Bugs to New Host Plants
      • Concept 4.4 Review
    • 4.5 Change due to Chance
      • Evidence of Genetic Drift in Island Crickets
      • Genetic Diversity and Butterfly Extinctions
      • Concept 4.5 Review
    • Applications: Evolution and Agriculture
    • Evolution of Herbicide Resistance in Weeds
• Section II: Adaptations to the Environment
  • Chapter 5 Temperature Relations
    • Concepts
    • 5.1 Microclimates
      • Altitude
      • Aspect
      • Vegetation
      • Color of the Ground
      • Presence of Boulders and Burrows
      • Aquatic Temperatures
      • Concept 5.1 Review
    • 5.2 Evolutionary Trade-Offs
      • The Principle of Allocation
      • Concept 5.2 Review
    • 5.3 Temperature and Performance of Organisms
      • Extreme Temperatures and Photosynthesis
      • Temperature and Microbial Activity
      • Concept 5.3 Review
    • 5.4 Regulating Body Temperature
      • Balancing Heat Gain Against Heat Loss
      • Temperature Regulation by Plants
      • Temperature Regulation by Ectothermic Animals
      • Temperature Regulation by Endothermic Animals
      • Temperature Regulation by Thermogenic Plants
      • Concept 5.4 Review
    • 5.5 Surviving Extreme Temperatures
      • Inactivity
      • Reducing Metabolic Rate
      • Hibernation by a Tropical Species
      • Concept 5.5 Review
    • Applications: Local Extinction of a Land Snail in an Urban Heat Island
  • Chapter 6 Water Relations
    • Concepts
    • 6.1 Water Availability
      • Water Content of Air
      • Water Movement in Aquatic Environments
      • Water Movement Between Soils and Plants
      • Concept 6.1 Review
    • 6.2 Water Regulation on Land
      • Water Acquisition by Animals
      • Water Acquisition by Plants
      • Water Conservation by Plants and Animals
      • Dissimilar Organisms with Similar Approaches to Desert Life
      • Two Arthropods with Opposite Approaches to Desert Life
      • Concept 6.2 Review
    • 6.3 Water and Salt Balance in Aquatic Environments
      • Marine Fish and Invertebrates
      • Freshwater Fish and Invertebrates
      • Concept 6.3 Review
    • Applications: Using Stable Isotopes to Study Water Uptake by Plants
    • Stable Isotope Analysis
    • Using Stable Isotopes to Identify Plant Water Sources
  • Chapter 7 Energy and Nutrient Relations
    • Concepts
    • 7.1 Photosynthetic Autotrophs
      • The Solar-Powered Biosphere
      • Concept 7.1 Review
    • 7.2 Chemosynthetic Autotrophs
      • Concept 7.2 Review
    • 7.3 Heterotrophs
      • Chemical Composition and Nutrient Requirements
      • Concept 7.3 Review
    • 7.4 Energy Limitation
      • Photon Flux and Photosynthetic Response Curves
      • Food Density and Animal Functional Response
      • Concept 7.4 Review
    • 7.5 Optimal Foraging Theory
      • Testing Optimal Foraging Theory
      • Optimal Foraging by Plants
      • Concept 7.5 Review
    • Applications: Bioremediation—Using the Trophic Diversity of Bacteria to Solve Environmental Problems
    • Leaking Underground Storage Tanks
    • Cyanide and Nitrates in Mine Spoils
  • Chapter 8 Social Relations
    • Concepts
    • 8.1 Mate Choice versus Predation
      • Mate Choice and Sexual Selection in Guppies
      • Concept 8.1 Review
    • 8.2 Mate Choice and Resource Provisioning
      • Concept 8.2 Review
    • 8.3 Nonrandom Mating in a Plant Population
      • Concept 8.3 Review
    • 8.4 Sociality
      • Cooperative Breeders
      • Concept 8.4 Review
    • 8.5 Eusociality
      • Eusocial Species
      • Evolution of Eusociality
      • Concept 8.5 Review
    • Applications: Behavioral Ecology and Conservation
    • Tinbergen’s Framework
    • Environmental Enrichment and Development of Behavior
• Section III: Population Ecology
  • Chapter 9 Population Distribution and Abundance
    • Concepts
    • 9.1 Distribution Limits
      • Kangaroo Distributions and Climate
      • Distributions of Plants Along a Moisture-Temperature Gradient
      • Distributions of Barnacles Along an Intertidal Exposure Gradient
      • Concept 9.1 Review
    • 9.2 Patterns on Small Scales
      • Scale, Distributions, and Mechanisms
      • Distributions of Tropical Bee Colonies
      • Distributions of Desert Shrubs
      • Concept 9.2 Review
    • 9.3 Patterns on Large Scales
      • Bird Populations Across North America
      • Plant Distributions Along Moisture Gradients
      • Concept 9.3 Review
    • 9.4 Organism Size and Population Density
      • Animal Size and Population Density
      • Plant Size and Population Density
      • Concept 9.4 Review
    • Applications: Rarity and Vulnerability to Extinction
    • Seven Forms of Rarity and One of Abundance
  • Chapter 10 Population Dynamics
    • Concepts
    • 10.1 Dispersal
      • Dispersal of Expanding Populations
      • Range Changes in Response to Climate Change
      • Dispersal in Response to Changing Food Supply
      • Dispersal in Rivers and Streams
      • Concept 10.1 Review
    • 10.2 Metapopulations
      • A Metapopulation of an Alpine Butterfly
      • Dispersal Within a Metapopulation of Lesser Kestrels
      • Concept 10.2 Review
    • 10.3 Patterns of Survival
      • Estimating Patterns of Survival
      • High Survival Among the Young
      • Constant Rates of Survival
      • High Mortality Among the Young
      • Three Types of Survivorship Curves
      • Concept 10.3 Review
    • 10.4 Age Distribution
      • Contrasting Tree Populations
      • A Dynamic Population in a Variable Climate
      • Concept 10.4 Review
    • 10.5 Rates of Population Change
      • Estimating Rates for an Annual Plant
      • Estimating Rates When Generations Overlap
      • Concept 10.5 Review
    • Applications: Changes in Species Distributions in Response to Climate Warming
  • Chapter 11 Population Growth
    • Concepts
    • 11.1 Geometric and Exponential Population Growth
      • Geometric Growth
      • Exponential Growth
      • Exponential Growth in Nature
      • Concept 11.1 Review
    • 11.2 Logistic Population Growth
      • Concept 11.2 Review
    • 11.3 Limits to Population Growth
      • Environment and Birth and Death Among Darwin’s Finches
      • Concept 11.3 Review
    • Applications: The Human Population
    • Distribution and Abundance
    • Population Dynamics
    • Population Growth
  • Chapter 12 Life Histories
    • Concepts
    • 12.1 Offspring Number versus Size
      • Egg Size and Number in Fish
      • Seed Size and Number in Plants
      • Seed Size and Seedling Performance
      • Concept 12.1 Review
    • 12.2 Adult Survival and Reproductive Allocation
      • Life History Variation Among Species
      • Life History Variation within Species
      • Concept 12.2 Review
    • 12.3 Life History Classification
      • r and K Selection
      • Plant Life Histories
      • Opportunistic, Equilibrium, and Periodic Life Histories
      • Lifetime Reproductive Effort and Relative Offspring Size: Two Central Variables?
      • Concept 12.3 Review
    • Applications: Climate Change and Timing of Reproduction and Migration
    • Altered Plant Phenology
    • Animal Phenology
• Section IV: Interactions
  • Chapter 13 Species Interactions and Competition
    • Concepts
    • Competitive Interactions Are Diverse
    • 13.1 Intraspecific Competition
      • Intraspecific Competition Among Plants
      • Intraspecific Competition Among Planthoppers
      • Interference Competition Among Terrestrial Isopods
      • Concept 13.1 Review
    • 13.2 Competitive Exclusion and Niches
      • The Feeding Niches of Darwin’s Finches
      • Competition for Caterpillars
      • Concept 13.2 Review
    • 13.3 Mathematical and Laboratory Models
      • Modeling Interspecific Competition
      • Laboratory Models of Competition
      • Concept 13.3 Review
    • 13.4 Competition and Niches
      • Niches and Competition Among Plants
      • Niche Overlap and Competition Between Barnacles
      • Competition and the Niches of Small Rodents
      • Character Displacement
      • Evidence for Competition in Nature
      • Concept 13.4 Review
    • Applications: Competition Between Native and Invasive Species
  • Chapter 14 Exploitative Interactions: Predation, Herbivory, Parasitism, and Disease
    • Concepts
    • 14.1 Exploitation and Abundance
      • A Herbivorous Stream Insect and Its Algal Food
      • Bats, Birds, and Herbivory in a Tropical Forest
      • A Pathogenic Parasite, a Predator, and Its Prey
      • Concept 14.1 Review
    • 14.2 Dynamics
      • Cycles of Abundance in Snowshoe Hares and Their Predators
      • Experimental Test of Food and Predation Impacts
      • Population Cycles in Mathematical and Laboratory Models
      • Concept 14.2 Review
    • 14.3 Refuges
      • Refuges and Host Persistence in Laboratory and Mathematical Models
      • Exploited Organisms and Their Wide Variety of “Refuges”
      • Concept 14.3 Review
    • 14.4 Ratio-Dependent Models of Functional Response
      • Alternative Model for Trophic Ecology
      • Evidence for Ratio-Dependent Predation
      • Concept 14.4 Review
    • 14.5 Complex Interactions
      • Parasites and Pathogens That Manipulate Host Behavior
      • The Entangling of Exploitation with Competition
      • Concept 14.5 Review
    • Applications: The Value of Pest Control by Bats: A Case Study
  • Chapter 15 Mutualism
    • Concepts
    • 15.1 Plant Mutualisms
      • Plant Performance and Mycorrhizal Fungi
      • Ants and Swollen Thorn Acacias
      • A Temperate Plant Protection Mutualism
      • Concept 15.1 Review
    • 15.2 Coral Mutualisms
      • Zooxanthellae and Corals
      • A Coral Protection Mutualism
      • Concept 15.2 Review
    • 15.3 Evolution of Mutualism
      • Facultative Ant-Plant Protection Mutualisms
      • Concept 15.3 Review
    • Applications: Mutualism and Humans
    • Guiding Behavior
• Section V: Communities and Ecosystems
  • Chapter 16 Species Abundance and Diversity
    • Concepts
    • 16.1 Species Abundance
      • The Lognormal Distribution
      • Concept 16.1 Review
    • 16.2 Species Diversity
      • A Quantitative Index of Species Diversity
      • Rank-Abundance Curves
      • Concept 16.2 Review
    • 16.3 Environmental Complexity
      • Forest Complexity and Bird Species Diversity
      • Niches, Heterogeneity, and the Diversity of Algae and Plants
      • The Niches of Algae and Terrestrial Plants
      • Complexity in Plant Environments
      • Soil and Topographic Heterogeneity
      • Nutrient Enrichment Can Reduce Environmental Complexity
      • Nitrogen Enrichment and Ectomycorrhizal Fungus Diversity
      • Concept 16.3 Review
    • 16.4 Disturbance and Diversity
      • The Nature and Sources of Disturbance
      • The Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis
      • Disturbance and Diversity in the Intertidal Zone
      • Disturbance and Diversity in Temperate Grasslands
      • Concept 16.4 Review
    • Applications: Disturbance by Humans
    • Urban Diversity
  • Chapter 17 Species Interactions and Community Structure
    • Concepts
    • 17.1 Community Webs
      • Strong Interactions and Food Web Structure
      • Concept 17.1 Review
    • 17.2 Indirect Interactions
      • Indirect Commensalism
      • Apparent Competition
      • Concept 17.2 Review
    • 17.3 Keystone Species
      • Food Web Structure and Species Diversity
      • Experimental Removal of Sea Stars
      • Snail Effects on Algal Diversity
      • Fish as Keystone Species in River Food Webs
      • Concept 17.3 Review
    • 17.4 Mutualistic Keystones
      • A Cleaner Fish as a Keystone Species
      • Seed Dispersal Mutualists as Keystone Species
      • Concept 17.4 Review
    • Applications: Human Modification of Food Webs
    • Parasitoid Wasps: Apparent Competition and Biological Control
  • Chapter 18 Primary and Secondary Production
    • Concepts
    • 18.1 Patterns of Terrestrial Primary Production
      • Actual Evapotranspiration and Terrestrial Primary Production
      • Soil Fertility and Terrestrial Primary Production
      • Concept 18.1 Review
    • 18.2 Patterns of Aquatic Primary Production
      • Patterns and Models
      • Whole-Lake Experiments on Primary Production
      • Global Patterns of Marine Primary Production
      • Concept 18.2 Review
    • 18.3 Primary Producer Diversity
      • Terrestrial Plant Diversity and Primary Production
      • Algal Diversity and Aquatic Primary Production
      • Concept 18.3 Review
    • 18.4 Consumer Influences
      • Piscivores, Planktivores, and Lake Primary Production
      • Grazing by Large Mammals and Primary Production on the Serengeti
      • Concept 18.4 Review
    • 18.5 Secondary Production
      • A Trophic Dynamic View of Ecosystems
      • Top-down Versus Bottom-up Controls on Secondary Production
      • Linking Primary Production and Secondary Production
      • Concept 18.5 Review
    • Applications: Using Stable Isotope Analysis to Study Feeding Habits
    • Using Stable Isotopes to Identify Sources of Energy in a Salt Marsh
  • Chapter 19 Nutrient Cycling and Retention
    • Concepts
    • 19.1 Nutrient Cycles
      • The Phosphorus Cycle
      • The Nitrogen Cycle
      • The Carbon Cycle
      • Concept 19.1 Review
    • 19.2 Rates of Decomposition
      • Decomposition in Two Mediterranean Woodland Ecosystems
      • Decomposition in Two Temperate Forest Ecosystems
      • Decomposition in Aquatic Ecosystems
      • Concept 19.2 Review
    • 19.3 Organisms and Nutrients
      • Nutrient Cycling in Streams and Lakes
      • Animals and Nutrient Cycling in Terrestrial Ecosystems
      • Plants and the Nutrient Dynamics of Ecosystems
      • Concept 19.3 Review
    • 19.4 Disturbance and Nutrients
      • Disturbance and Nutrient Loss from Forests
      • Flooding and Nutrient Export by Streams
      • Concept 19.4 Review
    • Applications: Altering Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems
  • Chapter 20 Succession and Stability
    • Concepts
    • 20.1 Community Changes During Succession
      • Primary Succession at Glacier Bay
      • Secondary Succession in Temperate Forests
      • Succession in Rocky Intertidal Communities
      • Succession in Stream Communities
      • Concept 20.1 Review
    • 20.2 Ecosystem Changes During Succession
      • Four Million Years of Ecosystem Change
      • Succession and Stream Ecosystem Properties
      • Concept 20.2 Review
    • 20.3 Mechanisms of Succession
      • Facilitation
      • Tolerance
      • Inhibition
      • Successional Mechanisms in the Rocky Intertidal Zone
      • Mechanisms in Old Field Succession
      • Concept 20.3 Review
    • 20.4 Community and Ecosystem Stability
      • Lessons from the Park Grass Experiment
      • Replicate Disturbances and Desert Stream Stability
      • Concept 20.4 Review
    • Applications: Ecological Succession Informing Ecological Restoration
    • Applying Succession Concepts to Restoration
• SECTION VI: Large-Scale Ecology
  • Chapter 21 Landscape Ecology
    • Concepts
    • 21.1 Landscape Structure
      • The Structure of Six Landscapes in Ohio
      • The Fractal Geometry of Landscapes
      • Concept 21.1 Review
    • 21.2 Landscape Processes
      • Landscape Structure and the Dispersal of Mammals
      • Habitat Patch Size and Isolation and the Density of Butterfly Populations
      • Habitat Corridors and Movement of Organisms
      • Landscape Position and Lake Chemistry
      • Concept 21.2 Review
    • 21.3 Origins of Landscape Structure and Change
      • Geological Processes, Climate, and Landscape Structure
      • Organisms and Landscape Structure
      • Fire and the Structure of a Mediterranean Landscape
      • Concept 21.3 Review
    • Applications: Landscape Approaches to Mitigating Urban Heat Islands
  • Chapter 22 Geographic Ecology
    • Concepts
    • 22.1 Area, Isolation, and Species Richness
      • Island Area and Species Richness
      • Island Isolation and Species Richness
      • Concept 22.1 Review
    • 22.2 The Equilibrium Model of Island Biogeography
      • Species Turnover on Islands
      • Experimental Island Biogeography
      • Colonization of New Islands by Plants
      • Manipulating Island Area
      • Island Biogeography Update
      • Concept 22.2 Review
    • 22.3 Latitudinal Gradients in Species Richness
      • Latitudinal Gradient Hypotheses
      • Area and Latitudinal Gradients in Species Richness
      • Continental Area and Species Richness
      • Concept 22.3 Review
    • 22.4 Historical and Regional Influences
      • Exceptional Patterns of Diversity
      • Historical and Regional Explanations
      • Concept 22.4 Review
    • Applications: Global Positioning Systems, Remote Sensing, and Geographic Information Systems
    • Global Positioning Systems
    • Remote Sensing
    • Geographic Information Systems
  • Chapter 23 Global Ecology
    • Concepts
    • The Atmospheric Envelope and the Greenhouse Earth
    • 23.1 A Global System
      • The Historical Thread
      • El Niño and La Niña
      • El Niño Southern Oscillation and Marine Populations
      • El Niño and the Great Salt Lake
      • El Niño and Terrestrial Populations in Australia
      • Concept 23.1 Review
    • 23.2 Human Activity and the Global Nitrogen Cycle
      • Concept 23.2 Review
    • 23.3 Changes in Land Cover
      • Deforestation
      • Concept 23.3 Review
    • 23.4 Human Influence on Atmospheric Composition
      • Depletion and Recovery of the Ozone Layer
      • Concept 23.4 Review
    • Applications: Impacts of Global Climate Change
    • Shifts in Biodiversity and Widespread Extinction of Species
    • Human Impacts of Climate Change
  • Appendix A Investigating the Evidence
    • 1: The Scientific Method—Questions and Hypotheses
    • 2: Determining the Sample Mean
    • 3: Determining the Sample Median
    • 4: Variation in Data
    • 5: Laboratory Experiments
    • 6: Sample Size
    • 7: Scatter Plots and the Relationship Between Variables
    • 8: Estimating Heritability Using Regression Analysis
    • 9: Clumped, Random, and Regular Distributions
    • 10: Hypotheses and Statistical Significance
    • 11: Frequency of Alternative Phenotypes in a Population
    • 12: A Statistical Test for Distribution Pattern
    • 13: Field Experiments
    • 14: Standard Error of the Mean
    • 15: Confidence Intervals
    • 16: Estimating the Number of Species in Communities
    • 17: Using Confidence Intervals to Compare Populations
    • 18: Comparing Two Populations with the t-Test
    • 19: Assumptions for Statistical Tests
    • 20: Variation Around the Median
    • 21: Comparison of Two Samples Using a Rank Sum Test
    • 22: Sample Size Revisited
    • 23: Discovering What’s Been Discovered
  • Appendix B Statistical Tables
  • Appendix C Abbreviations Used in This Text
  • Appendix D Global Biomes
  • Glossary
  • References
  • Index

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