Lippincott® Illustrated Reviews: Biochemistry
Námskeið LEI203G Lífefnafræði LÆK310G Sameindalífvísindi A LÆK408G Sameindalífvísindi B - Höfundar: Emine E Abali, Susan D Cline, David S Franklin, Susan M Viselli
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- LEI203G Lífefnafræði
- LÆK310G Sameindalífvísindi A
- LÆK408G Sameindalífvísindi B
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Selected as a Doody's Core Title for three years running! A bestselling title in this highly regarded review series, Lippincott® Illustrated Reviews: Biochemistry is the go-to resource for both faculty and students for mastering the essentials of biochemistry. The fully revised 9th Edition helps students quickly review, assimilate, and integrate large amounts of critical and complex information, with unparalleled illustrations that bring concepts to life.
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- Höfundar: Emile E Abali, Susan D Cline, David S Franklin, Susan M Viselli
- Útgáfa:9
- Útgáfudagur: 2024-12-05
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- Format:ePub
- ISBN 13: 9781975220525
- Print ISBN: 9781975220495
- ISBN 10: 1975220528
Efnisyfirlit
- Cover
- Title Page
- Copyright
- Dedication
- Acknowledgments
- Contributing Editor, Online Unit Review Questions
- Reviewers
- Preface
- CONCEPT MAPS
- A: Concept boxes and links
- B: Links to other parts of a map
- RECOMMENDED USE OF THIS TEXTBOOK AND OTHER RESOURCES
- CONCEPT MAPS
- Contents
- UNIT I Protein Structure and Function
- 1 Amino Acids and the Role of pH
- I. OVERVIEW
- II. STRUCTURE
- A. Amino acids with nonpolar side chains
- B. Amino acids with uncharged polar side chains
- C. Amino acids with acidic side chains
- D. Amino acids with basic side chains
- E. Abbreviations and symbols for commonly occurring amino acids
- F. Amino acid isomers
- III. ACIDIC AND BASIC PROPERTIES
- A. pH
- B. Buffers
- C. Buffering the blood, the bicarbonate buffer system
- D. pH and drug absorption
- E. Blood gases and pH
- 1 Amino Acids and the Role of pH
- 2 Protein Structure
- I. OVERVIEW
- II. PRIMARY STRUCTURE
- A. Peptide bond
- B. Determining the amino acid composition of a polypeptide
- C. Sequencing the peptide from its N-terminal end
- D. Cleaving the polypeptide into smaller fragments
- E. Determining a protein’s primary structure by DNA sequencing
- III. SECONDARY STRUCTURE
- A. α-Helix
- B. β-Sheet
- C. β-Bends
- D. Nonrepetitive secondary structure
- E. Supersecondary structures (motifs)
- IV. TERTIARY STRUCTURE
- A. Domains
- B. Stabilizing interactions
- C. Protein folding
- D. Protein denaturation
- E. Chaperones in protein folding
- V. QUATERNARY STRUCTURE
- VI. PROTEIN MISFOLDING
- A. Amyloid diseases
- B. Prion diseases
- I. OVERVIEW
- II. GLOBULAR HEMEPROTEINS
- A. Heme structure
- B. Myoglobin structure and function
- C. Hemoglobin structure and function
- D. Oxygen binding to myoglobin and hemoglobin
- E. Allosteric effectors
- F. Minor hemoglobins
- III. GLOBIN GENE ORGANIZATION
- A. α-Gene family
- B. β-Gene family
- IV. HEMOGLOBINOPATHIES
- A. Sickle cell anemia (hemoglobin S disease)
- B. Hemoglobin C disease
- C. Hemoglobin SC disease
- D. Methemoglobinemias
- E. Thalassemias
- I. OVERVIEW
- II. COLLAGEN
- A. Types
- B. Structure
- C. Biosynthesis
- D. Degradation
- E. Collagenopathies
- III. ELASTIN
- A. Structure
- B. Marfan syndrome
- C. α1-Antitrypsin in elastin degradation
- I. OVERVIEW
- II. NOMENCLATURE
- A. Recommended name
- B. Systematic name
- III. PROPERTIES
- A. Active site
- B. Efficiency
- C. Specificity
- D. Holoenzymes, apoenzymes, cofactors, and coenzymes
- E. Regulation
- F. Location within the cell
- IV. MECHANISM OF ENZYME ACTION
- A. Energy changes occurring during the reaction
- B. Active site chemistry
- V. FACTORS AFFECTING REACTION VELOCITY
- A. Substrate concentration
- B. Temperature
- C. pH
- VI. MICHAELIS–MENTEN KINETICS
- A. Michaelis–Menten equation
- B. Important conclusions
- C. Lineweaver–Burk plot
- VII. ENZYME INHIBITION
- A. Competitive inhibition
- B. Noncompetitive inhibition
- C. Enzyme inhibitors as drugs
- VIII. ENZYME REGULATION
- A. Allosteric enzymes
- B. Covalent modification
- C. Enzyme synthesis
- IX. ENZYMES IN HUMAN BLOOD
- A. Blood plasma enzyme levels in disease states
- B. Plasma enzymes as diagnostic tools
- C. Isoenzymes
- 6 Bioenergetics and Oxidative Phosphorylation
- I. OVERVIEW
- II. FREE ENERGY
- III. FREE ENERGY CHANGE
- A. ΔG and reaction direction
- B. ΔG of the forward and reverse reactions
- C. ΔG and reactant and product concentrations
- D. Standard free energy change
- IV. ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE: AN ENERGY CARRIER
- A. Common intermediates
- B. Energy carried by ATP
- V. ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
- A. Mitochondrial electron transport chain
- B. Organization
- C. Reactions
- D. Free energy release during electron transport
- VI. PHOSPHORYLATION OF ADP TO ATP
- A. Chemiosmotic hypothesis
- B. Membrane transport systems
- C. Inherited defects in oxidative phosphorylation
- D. Mitochondria and apoptosis
- I. OVERVIEW
- II. CLASSIFICATION AND STRUCTURE
- A. Isomers and epimers
- B. Enantiomers
- C. Monosaccharide cyclization
- D. Monosaccharide joining
- E. Glycosidic bonds
- F. Carbohydrate linkage to noncarbohydrates
- III. DIETARY CARBOHYDRATE DIGESTION
- A. Salivary α-amylase
- B. Pancreatic α-amylase
- C. Intestinal disaccharidases
- D. Intestinal absorption of monosaccharides
- E. Abnormal degradation of disaccharides
- I. METABOLISM OVERVIEW
- A. Metabolic map
- B. Catabolic pathways
- C. Anabolic pathways
- II. METABOLISM REGULATION
- A. Intracellular communication
- B. Intercellular communication
- C. G protein–linked receptors and second-messenger systems
- D. Adenylyl cyclase
- III. GLYCOLYSIS OVERVIEW
- IV. GLUCOSE TRANSPORT INTO CELLS
- A. Passive transport of glucose
- B. Sodium- and ATP-dependent cotransport of glucose
- V. GLYCOLYSIS REACTIONS
- A. Glucose phosphorylation
- B. Glucose 6-phosphate isomerization
- C. Fructose 6-phosphate phosphorylation
- D. Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate cleavage
- E. Dihydroxyacetone phosphate isomerization
- F. Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate oxidation
- G. 3-Phosphoglycerate synthesis and ATP production
- H. Phosphate group shift
- I. 2-Phosphoglycerate dehydration
- J. Pyruvate synthesis and ATP production
- K. Pyruvate reduction to lactate
- L. Energy yield from glycolysis
- VI. HORMONAL REGULATION
- VII. ALTERNATE FATES OF PYRUVATE
- A. Oxidative decarboxylation to acetyl CoA
- B. Carboxylation to oxaloacetate
- C. Reduction to ethanol (microorganisms)
- I. CYCLE OVERVIEW
- II. CYCLE REACTIONS
- A. Acetyl CoA production
- B. Citrate synthesis
- C. Citrate isomerization
- D. Oxidative decarboxylation of isocitrate
- E. Oxidative decarboxylation of α-ketoglutarate
- F. Succinyl CoA cleavage
- G. Succinate oxidation
- H. Fumarate hydration
- I. Malate oxidation
- III. ENERGY PRODUCED BY THE CYCLE
- IV. CYCLE REGULATION
- I. OVERVIEW
- II. SUBSTRATES
- A. Glycerol
- B. Lactate
- C. Amino acids
- III. REACTIONS
- A. Pyruvate carboxylation
- B. Oxaloacetate transport to the cytosol
- C. Cytosolic oxaloacetate decarboxylation
- D. Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate dephosphorylation
- E. Glucose 6-phosphate dephosphorylation
- F. Summary of the reactions of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis
- IV. REGULATION
- A. Glucagon
- B. Substrate availability
- C. Allosteric activation by acetyl CoA
- D. Allosteric inhibition by AMP
- I. OVERVIEW
- II. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
- A. Amounts in liver and muscle
- B. Structure
- C. Glycogen store fluctuation
- III. SYNTHESIS (GLYCOGENESIS)
- A. Uridine diphosphate glucose synthesis
- B. Primer requirement and synthesis
- C. Elongation by glycogen synthase
- D. Branch formation
- IV. DEGRADATION (GLYCOGENOLYSIS)
- A. Chain shortening
- B. Branch removal
- C. Glucose 1-phosphate isomerization to glucose 6-phosphate
- D. Lysosomal degradation
- V. GLYCOGENESIS AND GLYCOGENOLYSIS REGULATION
- A. Covalent activation of glycogenolysis
- B. Covalent inhibition of glycogenesis
- C. Allosteric regulation of glycogenesis and glycogenolysis
- VI. GLYCOGEN STORAGE DISEASES
- I. OVERVIEW
- II. FRUCTOSE METABOLISM
- A. Phosphorylation
- B. Fructose 1-phosphate cleavage
- C. Kinetics
- D. Disorders
- E. Mannose conversion to fructose 6-phosphate
- F. Glucose conversion to fructose via sorbitol
- III. GALACTOSE METABOLISM
- A. Phosphorylation
- B. Uridine diphosphate–galactose formation
- C. UDP-galactose conversion to UDP-glucose
- D. UDP-galactose in biosynthetic reactions
- E. Disorders
- IV. LACTOSE SYNTHESIS
- I. OVERVIEW
- II. IRREVERSIBLE OXIDATIVE REACTIONS
- A. Glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenation
- B. Ribulose 5-phosphate formation
- III. REVERSIBLE NONOXIDATIVE REACTIONS
- IV. NICOTINAMIDE ADENINE DINUCLEOTIDE PHOSPHATE USES
- A. Reductive biosynthesis
- B. Hydrogen peroxide reduction
- C. Cytochrome P450 monooxygenase system
- D. White blood cell phagocytosis and microbe killing
- E. Nitric oxide synthesis
- V. GLUCOSE 6-PHOSPHATE DEHYDROGENASE DEFICIENCY
- A. G6PD role in erythrocytes
- B. Precipitating factors in G6PD deficiency
- C. G6PD gene variants
- I. GLYCOSAMINOGLYCAN OVERVIEW
- II. STRUCTURE
- A. Structure–function relationship
- B. Classification
- C. Proteoglycans
- III. SYNTHESIS
- A. Amino sugar synthesis
- B. Acidic sugar synthesis
- C. Core protein synthesis
- D. Carbohydrate chain synthesis
- E. Sulfate group addition
- IV. DEGRADATION
- A. Glycosaminoglycans and phagocytosis
- B. Lysosomal degradation
- V. MUCOPOLYSACCHARIDOSES
- VI. GLYCOPROTEIN OVERVIEW
- VII. OLIGOSACCHARIDE STRUCTURE
- A. Carbohydrate–protein linkage
- B. N- and O-Linked oligosaccharides
- VIII. GLYCOPROTEIN SYNTHESIS
- A. Carbohydrate components
- B. O-Linked glycoprotein synthesis
- C. N-Linked glycoprotein synthesis
- IX. LYSOSOMAL GLYCOPROTEIN DEGRADATION
- 15 Dietary Lipid Metabolism
- I. OVERVIEW
- II. DIGESTION, ABSORPTION, SECRETION, AND UTILIZATION
- A. Digestion in the stomach
- B. Emulsification in the small intestine
- C. Degradation by pancreatic enzymes
- D. Absorption by enterocytes
- E. Triacylglycerol and cholesteryl ester resynthesis
- F. Secretion from enterocytes
- G. Lipid malabsorption
- H. Use by the tissues
- I. OVERVIEW
- II. FATTY ACID STRUCTURE
- A. Fatty acid saturation
- B. Fatty acid chain length and double-bond positions
- C. Essential fatty acids
- III. FATTY ACID DE NOVO SYNTHESIS
- A. Cytosolic acetyl CoA production
- B. Acetyl CoA carboxylation to malonyl CoA
- C. Eukaryotic fatty acid synthase
- D. Reductant sources
- E. Further elongation
- F. Chain desaturation
- G. Storage as triacylglycerol components
- H. Triacylglycerol fate in liver and adipose tissue
- IV. FAT MOBILIZATION AND FATTY ACID OXIDATION
- A. Fatty acid release from fat
- B. Fatty acid β-oxidation
- C. Peroxisomal α-oxidation
- V. KETONE BODIES: ALTERNATIVE FUEL FOR CELLS
- A. Ketone body synthesis by the liver: ketogenesis
- B. Ketone body use by the peripheral tissues: ketolysis
- I. PHOSPHOLIPID OVERVIEW
- II. PHOSPHOLIPID STRUCTURE
- A. Glycerophospholipids
- B. Sphingophospholipids: sphingomyelin
- III. PHOSPHOLIPID SYNTHESIS
- A. Phosphatidic acid
- B. Phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine
- C. Phosphatidylserine
- D. Phosphatidylinositol
- E. Phosphatidylglycerol and cardiolipin
- F. Sphingomyelin
- IV. PHOSPHOLIPID DEGRADATION
- A. Phosphoglycerides
- B. Sphingomyelin
- V. GLYCOLIPID OVERVIEW
- VI. GLYCOSPHINGOLIPID STRUCTURE
- A. Neutral glycosphingolipids
- B. Acidic glycosphingolipids
- VII. GLYCOSPHINGOLIPID SYNTHESIS AND DEGRADATION
- A. Enzymes involved in synthesis
- B. Sulfate group addition
- C. Glycosphingolipid degradation
- D. Sphingolipidoses
- VIII. EICOSANOIDS: PROSTAGLANDINS, THROMBOXANES, AND LEUKOTRIENES
- A. Prostaglandin and thromboxane synthesis
- B. Thromboxanes and prostaglandins in platelet homeostasis
- C. Leukotriene synthesis
- I. OVERVIEW
- II. CHOLESTEROL STRUCTURE
- A. Sterols
- B. Cholesteryl esters
- III. CHOLESTEROL SYNTHESIS
- A. 3-Hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A synthesis
- B. Mevalonate synthesis
- C. Cholesterol synthesis from mevalonate
- D. Branch-point reactions in the biosynthesis of cholesterol
- E. Cholesterol synthesis regulation
- IV. CHOLESTEROL DEGRADATION
- V. BILE ACIDS AND BILE SALTS
- A. Structure
- B. Synthesis
- C. Conjugation
- D. Enterohepatic circulation
- E. Bacterial action on bile salts
- VI. PLASMA LIPOPROTEINS
- A. Composition
- B. Chylomicron metabolism
- C. Very–low-density lipoprotein metabolism
- D. Low-density lipoprotein metabolism
- E. High-density lipoprotein metabolism
- F. Lipoprotein (a) and heart disease
- VII. STEROID HORMONES
- A. Synthesis
- B. Adrenal cortical steroid hormones
- C. Gonadal steroid hormones
- D. Mechanism
- E. Further metabolism
- 19 Amino Acids: Nitrogen Disposal
- I. OVERVIEW
- II. OVERALL NITROGEN METABOLISM
- A. Amino acid pool
- B. Protein turnover
- III. DIETARY PROTEIN DIGESTION
- A. Digestion by gastric secretion
- B. Digestion by pancreatic enzymes
- C. Digestion of oligopeptides by small intestine enzymes
- D. Amino acid and small peptide intestinal absorption
- E. Absorption abnormalities
- IV. NITROGEN REMOVAL FROM AMINO ACIDS
- A. Transamination: funneling amino groups to form glutamate
- B. Oxidative deamination: amino group removal
- C. Ammonia transport to the liver
- V. UREA CYCLE
- A. Reactions
- B. Overall stoichiometry
- C. Regulation
- VI. AMMONIA METABOLISM
- A. Sources
- B. Transport in the circulation
- C. Hyperammonemia
- I. OVERVIEW
- II. GLUCOGENIC AND KETOGENIC AMINO ACIDS
- A. Glucogenic amino acids
- B. Ketogenic amino acids
- III. AMINO ACID CARBON SKELETON CATABOLISM
- A. Amino acids that form oxaloacetate
- B. Amino acids that form α-ketoglutarate via glutamate
- C. Amino acids that form pyruvate
- D. Amino acids that form fumarate
- E. Amino acids that form succinyl CoA: methionine
- F. Other amino acids that form succinyl CoA
- G. Amino acids that form acetyl CoA or acetoacetyl CoA
- H. Branched-chain amino acid degradation
- IV. FOLIC ACID AND AMINO ACID METABOLISM
- A. Folic acid and one-carbon metabolism
- V. BIOSYNTHESIS OF NONESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS
- A. Synthesis from α-keto acids
- B. Synthesis by amidation
- C. Proline
- D. Serine, glycine, and cysteine
- E. Tyrosine
- VI. AMINO ACID METABOLISM DISORDERS
- A. Phenylketonuria
- B. Maple syrup urine disease
- C. Albinism
- D. Homocystinuria
- E. Tyrosinemia type II
- F. Alkaptonuria
- G. Tyrosinemia type I
- H. Methylmalonic acidemia
- I. OVERVIEW
- II. PORPHYRIN METABOLISM
- A. Structure
- B. Heme biosynthesis
- C. Porphyrias
- D. Heme degradation
- E. Jaundice
- III. OTHER NITROGEN-CONTAINING COMPOUNDS
- A. Catecholamines
- B. Histamine
- C. Serotonin
- D. Creatine
- E. Melanin
- I. OVERVIEW
- II. STRUCTURE
- A. Purine and pyrimidine bases
- B. Nucleosides
- C. Nucleotides
- III. PURINE NUCLEOTIDE SYNTHESIS
- A. 5-Phosphoribosyl-1-pyrophosphate synthesis
- B. 5-Phosphoribosylamine synthesis
- C. Inosine monophosphate synthesis
- D. Synthetic inhibitors
- E. Adenosine and guanosine monophosphate synthesis
- F. Nucleoside di- and triphosphate synthesis
- G. Purine salvage pathway
- IV. DEOXYRIBONUCLEOTIDE SYNTHESIS
- A. Ribonucleotide reductase
- B. Deoxyribonucleotide synthesis regulation
- V. PURINE NUCLEOTIDE DEGRADATION
- A. Degradation in the small intestine
- B. Uric acid formation
- C. Diseases associated with purine degradation
- VI. PYRIMIDINE SYNTHESIS AND DEGRADATION
- A. Carbamoyl phosphate synthesis
- B. Orotic acid synthesis
- C. Pyrimidine nucleotide synthesis
- D. Cytidine triphosphate synthesis
- E. Deoxythymidine monophosphate synthesis
- F. Pyrimidine salvage and degradation
- 23 Metabolic Effects of Insulin and Glucagon
- I. OVERVIEW
- II. INSULIN
- A. Structure
- B. Synthesis and degradation
- C. Secretion regulation
- D. Metabolic effects
- E. Mechanism
- III. GLUCAGON
- A. Increased secretion
- B. Decreased secretion
- C. Metabolic effects
- D. Mechanism
- IV. HYPOGLYCEMIA
- A. Symptoms
- B. Glucoregulatory systems
- C. Types
- I. OVERVIEW OF THE ABSORPTIVE STATE
- II. REGULATORY MECHANISMS
- A. Availability of substrates
- B. Allosteric effectors
- C. Covalent modification
- D. Induction and repression of enzyme synthesis
- III. LIVER: NUTRIENT DISTRIBUTION CENTER
- A. Carbohydrate metabolism
- B. Fat metabolism
- C. Amino acid metabolism
- IV. ADIPOSE TISSUE: ENERGY STORAGE DEPOT
- A. Carbohydrate metabolism
- B. Fat metabolism
- V. RESTING SKELETAL MUSCLE
- A. Carbohydrate metabolism
- B. Fat metabolism
- C. Amino acid metabolism
- VI. BRAIN
- VII. OVERVIEW OF THE FASTING STATE
- A. Fuel stores
- B. Enzymic changes
- VIII. LIVER IN THE FASTING STATE
- A. Carbohydrate metabolism
- B. Fat metabolism
- IX. ADIPOSE TISSUE IN THE FASTING STATE
- A. Carbohydrate metabolism
- B. Fat metabolism
- X. RESTING SKELETAL MUSCLE IN THE FASTING STATE
- A. Carbohydrate metabolism
- B. Lipid metabolism
- C. Protein metabolism
- XI. BRAIN IN THE FASTING STATE
- XII. KIDNEY IN LONG-TERM FASTING
- I. OVERVIEW
- II. TYPE 1 DIABETES
- A. Diagnosis
- B. Metabolic changes
- C. Treatment
- III. TYPE 2 DIABETES
- A. Insulin resistance
- B. Dysfunctional β cells
- C. Metabolic changes
- D. Treatment
- IV. CHRONIC EFFECTS AND PREVENTION
- I. OVERVIEW
- II. ASSESSMENT
- A. Body mass index
- B. Anatomic differences in fat deposition
- C. Biochemical differences in regional fat depots
- D. Adipocyte size and number
- III. BODY WEIGHT REGULATION
- A. Genetic contributions
- B. Environmental and behavioral contributions
- IV. MOLECULAR INFLUENCES
- A. Long-term signals
- B. Short-term signals
- V. METABOLIC EFFECTS
- A. Metabolic syndrome
- B. Nonalcoholic liver disease
- VI. OBESITY AND HEALTH
- VII. WEIGHT REDUCTION
- A. Caloric restriction
- B. Physical activity
- C. Pharmacologic treatment
- D. Surgical treatment
- 27 Nutrition: Overview and Macronutrients
- I. OVERVIEW
- II. DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES
- A. Definition
- B. Using the dietary reference intakes
- III. ENERGY REQUIREMENT IN HUMANS
- A. Energy content of food
- B. Use of food energy in the body
- IV. ACCEPTABLE MACRONUTRIENT DISTRIBUTION RANGES
- V. DIETARY FATS
- A. Plasma lipids and coronary heart disease
- B. Dietary fats and plasma lipids
- C. Other dietary factors affecting coronary heart disease
- VI. DIETARY CARBOHYDRATES
- A. Classification
- B. Dietary carbohydrate and blood glucose
- C. Carbohydrate requirements
- D. Simple sugars and disease
- VII. DIETARY PROTEIN
- A. Protein quality
- B. Nitrogen balance
- C. Protein requirements
- D. Protein-energy (calorie) malnutrition
- VIII. NUTRITION TOOLS
- A. MyPlate
- B. Nutrition facts label
- C. Nutrition assessment
- IX. NUTRITION AND THE LIFE STAGES
- A. Infancy, childhood, and adolescence
- B. Adulthood
- I. OVERVIEW
- II. FOLIC ACID (VITAMIN B9)
- A. Function
- B. Nutritional anemias
- III. COBALAMIN (VITAMIN B12)
- A. Structure and coenzyme forms
- B. Distribution
- C. Folate trap hypothesis
- D. Clinical indications for cobalamin
- IV. ASCORBIC ACID (VITAMIN C)
- A. Deficiency
- B. Chronic disease prevention
- V. PYRIDOXINE (VITAMIN B6)
- A. Clinical indications for pyridoxine
- B. Toxicity
- VI. THIAMINE (VITAMIN B1)
- A. Clinical indications for thiamine
- VII. NIACIN (VITAMIN B3)
- A. Distribution
- B. Clinical indications for niacin
- VIII. RIBOFLAVIN (VITAMIN B2)
- IX. BIOTIN (VITAMIN B7)
- X. PANTOTHENIC ACID (VITAMIN B5)
- XI. VITAMIN A
- A. Structure
- B. Absorption and transport to the liver
- C. Release from the liver
- D. Retinoic acid mechanism of action
- E. Functions
- F. Distribution
- G. Requirement
- H. Clinical indications for vitamin A
- I. Retinoid toxicity
- XII. VITAMIN D
- A. Distribution
- B. Metabolism
- C. Function
- D. Distribution and requirement
- E. Clinical indications for vitamin D
- F. Toxicity
- XIII. VITAMIN K
- A. Function
- B. Distribution and requirement
- C. Clinical indications for vitamin K
- D. Toxicity
- XIV. VITAMIN E
- A. Distribution and requirements
- B. Deficiency
- C. Clinical indications for vitamin E
- D. Toxicity
- XV. CHAPTER SUMMARY
- I. OVERVIEW
- II. MACROMINERALS
- A. Calcium and phosphorus
- B. Magnesium
- C. Sodium, chloride, and potassium
- III. TRACE MINERALS (MICROMINERALS)
- A. Copper
- B. Iron
- C. Manganese
- D. Zinc
- E. Other microminerals
- IV. ULTRATRACE MINERALS
- A. Iodine
- B. Selenium
- C. Molybdenum
- V. CHAPTER SUMMARY
- 30 DNA Structure, Replication, and Repair
- I. OVERVIEW
- II. DNA STRUCTURE
- A. 3′-to-5′ Phosphodiester bonds
- B. Double helix
- C. Linear and circular DNA molecules
- III. STEPS IN PROKARYOTIC DNA REPLICATION
- A. Complementary strand separation
- B. Replication fork formation
- C. Direction of DNA replication
- D. RNA primer
- E. Chain elongation
- F. RNA primer excision and replacement by DNA
- G. DNA ligase
- H. Termination
- IV. EUKARYOTIC DNA REPLICATION
- A. Eukaryotic cell cycle
- B. Eukaryotic DNA polymerases
- C. Telomeres
- D. Reverse transcriptases
- E. DNA replication inhibition by nucleoside analogs
- V. EUKARYOTIC DNA ORGANIZATION
- A. Histones and nucleosome formation
- B. Nucleosome fate during DNA replication
- VI. DNA REPAIR
- A. Mismatch repair
- B. Nucleotide excision repair
- C. Base excision repair
- D. Double-strand break repair
- I. OVERVIEW
- II. RNA STRUCTURE
- A. Ribosomal RNA
- B. Transfer RNA
- C. Messenger RNA
- III. PROKARYOTIC GENE TRANSCRIPTION
- A. Prokaryotic RNA polymerase
- B. Steps in RNA synthesis
- IV. EUKARYOTIC GENE TRANSCRIPTION
- A. Chromatin structure and gene expression
- B. Nuclear RNA polymerases
- V. POSTTRANSCRIPTIONAL MODIFICATION OF RNA
- A. Ribosomal RNA
- B. Transfer RNA
- C. Eukaryotic messenger RNA
- I. OVERVIEW
- II. GENETIC CODE
- A. Codons
- B. Characteristics
- C. Consequences of altering the nucleotide sequence
- III. COMPONENTS REQUIRED FOR TRANSLATION
- A. Amino acids
- B. Transfer RNA
- C. Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases
- D. Functionally competent ribosomes
- E. Protein factors
- F. Energy sources
- IV. CODON RECOGNITION BY TRANSFER RNA
- A. Antiparallel binding between codon and anticodon
- B. Wobble hypothesis
- V. STEPS IN TRANSLATION
- A. Initiation
- B. Elongation
- C. Termination
- D. Translation regulation
- E. Protein targeting
- VI. CO- AND POSTTRANSLATIONAL MODIFICATIONS
- A. Trimming
- B. Covalent attachments
- C. Protein degradation
- I. OVERVIEW
- II. REGULATORY SEQUENCES AND MOLECULES
- III. REGULATION OF PROKARYOTIC GENE EXPRESSION
- A. Messenger RNA transcription from bacterial operons
- B. Operators in bacterial operons
- C. Lactose operon
- D. Tryptophan operon
- E. Coordination of transcription and translation
- IV. REGULATION OF EUKARYOTIC GENE EXPRESSION
- A. Coordinate regulation
- B. Messenger RNA processing and use
- C. Regulation through variations in DNA
- I. OVERVIEW
- II. RESTRICTION ENDONUCLEASES
- A. Specificity
- B. Nomenclature
- C. Sticky and blunt ends
- III. DNA CLONING AND SEQUENCING
- A. Biologic cloning vectors
- B. Polymerase chain reaction
- C. Sequencing cloned DNA fragments
- IV. PROBES
- A. Hybridization to DNA
- B. Target DNA detection
- V. SOUTHERN BLOTTING
- A. Procedure
- B. Mutation detection
- VI. RESTRICTION FRAGMENT LENGTH POLYMORPHISM
- A. DNA variations resulting in restriction fragment length polymorphism
- B. Tracing chromosomes from parent to offspring
- C. Genetic risk and diagnosis
- VII. GENE EXPRESSION ANALYSIS
- A. Determining messenger RNA levels
- B. Protein analysis
- C. Proteomics
- VIII. GENE THERAPY
- IX. TRANSGENIC ANIMALS
- I. OVERVIEW
- II. SECONDARY HEMOSTASIS—FIBRIN MESHWORK FORMATION
- A. Proteolytic cascade
- B. Role of phosphatidylserine and calcium
- C. Formation of γ-carboxyglutamate residues
- D. Pathways
- III. LIMITING CLOTTING
- A. Inactivating proteins
- B. Fibrinolysis
- IV. PRIMARY HEMOSTASIS—PLATELET PLUG FORMATION
- A. Adhesion
- B. Activation
- C. Aggregation
- I. INTEGRATIVE CASES
- CASE 1: CHEST PAIN
- REVIEW QUESTIONS: Choose the ONE best answer
- THOUGHT QUESTIONS
- CASE 2: SEVERE FASTING HYPOGLYCEMIA
- REVIEW QUESTIONS: Choose the ONE best answer
- THOUGHT QUESTIONS
- CASE 3: HYPERGLYCEMIA AND HYPERKETONEMIA
- REVIEW QUESTIONS: Choose the ONE best answer
- THOUGHT QUESTIONS
- CASE 4: HYPOGLYCEMIA, HYPERKETONEMIA, AND LIVER DYSFUNCTION
- REVIEW QUESTIONS: Choose the ONE best answer
- THOUGHT QUESTIONS
- II. INTEGRATIVE CASE ANSWERS
- CASE 1: Answers to Review Questions
- CASE 1: Answers to Thought Questions
- CASE 2: Answers to Review Questions
- CASE 2: Answers to Thought Questions
- CASE 3: Answers to Review Questions
- CASE 3: Answers to Thought Questions
- CASE 4: Answers to Review Questions
- CASE 4: Answers to Thought Questions
- III. FOCUSED CASES
- CASE 1: MICROCYTIC ANEMIA
- CASE-RELATED QUESTIONS: Choose the ONE best answer
- CASE 2: SKIN RASH
- CASE-RELATED QUESTIONS: Choose the ONE best answer
- CASE 3: BLOOD ON THE TOOTHBRUSH
- CASE-RELATED QUESTIONS: Choose the ONE best answer
- CASE 4: RAPID HEART RATE, HEADACHE, AND SWEATING
- CASE-RELATED QUESTIONS: Choose the ONE best answer
- CASE 5: SUN SENSITIVITY
- CASE-RELATED QUESTIONS: Choose the ONE best answer
- CASE 6: DARK URINE AND YELLOW SCLERAE
- CASE-RELATED QUESTIONS: Choose the ONE best answer
- CASE 7: JOINT PAIN
- CASE-RELATED QUESTIONS: Choose the ONE best answer
- CASE 8: NO BOWEL MOVEMENT
- CASE-RELATED QUESTIONS: Choose the ONE best answer
- CASE 9: ELEVATED AMMONIA
- CASE-RELATED QUESTIONS: Choose the ONE best answer
- CASE 10: CALF PAIN
- CASE-RELATED QUESTIONS: Choose the ONE best answer
- IV. FOCUSED CASES: ANSWERS TO CASE-BASED QUESTIONS
- CASE 1: Anemia with β-Thalassemia Minor
- CASE 2: Skin Rash with Lyme Disease
- CASE 3: Blood on the Toothbrush with Vitamin C Deficiency
- CASE 4: Rapid Heart Rate, Headache, and Sweating with a Pheochromocytoma
- CASE 5: Sun Sensitivity with Xeroderma Pigmentosum
- CASE 6: Dark Urine and Yellow Sclerae with Glucose 6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase Deficiency
- CASE 7: Joint Pain with Gout
- CASE 8: No Bowel Movement with Cystic Fibrosis
- CASE 9: Hyperammonemia with a Urea Cycle Defect
- CASE 10: Swollen, Painful Calf with Deep Venous Thrombosis
UM RAFBÆKUR Á HEIMKAUP.IS
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